25. Citrus Production Technology

 Citrus

Scientific Name:

Citrus sps. 

Introduction:

    Citrus refers to a group of fruits that belong to the genus Citrus and are known for their juicy, acidic flesh and bright color. Some common examples of citrus fruits include oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits, and tangerines. These fruits are widely cultivated for their juice, which is commonly consumed as a refreshing beverage, and also used in cooking, baking, and as a garnish for cocktails. Additionally, the zest of citrus fruits is often used to add flavor to a variety of dishes. Citrus is native to subtropical and tropical regions and is now grown all over the world.

Importance of citrus:

Citrus fruits are important for several reasons:

1. Nutrition: Citrus fruits are a rich source of vitamins, particularly Vitamin C, which helps boost the immune system and promotes overall health.
2. CulinaryUses: The acidic juice and zest of citrus fruits are used in cooking and baking to add flavor to a variety of dishes.
3. Beverage Industry: Citrus juice is a popular beverage, either consumed on its own or as an ingredient in mixed drinks, smoothies, and juices.
4. Agriculture: Citrus is a major agricultural crop, providing income and employment for millions of people around the world.
5. Environmental benefits: Citrus trees also provide a habitat for wildlife and help reduce carbon dioxide levels through photosynthesis.
6. Medicinal Properties: The juice and oil from citrus fruits have been used in traditional medicine for their antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties.

Varieties are grown in Pakistan:

In Pakistan, the main commercial varieties of citrus fruits are:

1. Kinnow: A hybrid of mandarin and orange, Kinnow is the most widely grown and exported citrus fruit in Pakistan.
2. Mosambi: Also known as Sweet Lime, Mosambi is a popular citrus fruit in Pakistan, known for its sweet and juicy flesh.
3. Lemon: Lemons are widely cultivated in Pakistan and used in cooking, baking, and as a garnish for cocktails.
4. Grapefruit: A hybrid of pomelo and sweet orange, grapefruit is grown in Pakistan for both domestic consumption and export.
5. Mandarin: Mandarin is a popular citrus fruit in Pakistan, known for its easy-to-peel skin and sweet flesh.
6. Sherkhana: Valencia late and Salustiana

Major growing areas in Pakistan:

Punjab:           Distt. Sargodha, Sahiwal, Lahore, Sialkot, Jhang, Minwali, Multan,                                    Gujranwala

NWFP:             Mardan, Peshawar, Swat, Swabi, Noshera, Hazzara 

Sindh:             Sukkur, Khairpur, Nawabshah

Baluchistan:     Mekran, Sibi and Kech.

Propagation:

    All improved varieties are propagated via budding on rough lemons or sour oranges. Rootstocks are generally grown through seed, T budding/T grafting is the standard approach of citrus cultivars propagation. Budding can be accomplished throughout spring (Feb-March) and autumn (August-October) whilst bark slips freely from both scion and stock. Bud should be decided on from mature timber or efficient and wholesome timber. In sweet lime propagation via slicing is a common technique.

Soil and climate:

    Citrus bushes may be grown on a wide variety of soils, which includes deep sandy loam, loam, and clay loam. However, they no longer grow properly in very heavy, clayey, sandy, and alkaline or water-logged soils. Citrus fruits and timber are grown in tropical and sub-tropical climates. Temperature is the principal issue affecting, the time of blooming, maturity, production, and fruit quality of citrus.

Pruning:

Pruning is an important aspect of citrus tree care and maintenance. Some reasons for pruning citrus trees include:

• Promote Fruit Production: Pruning helps to remove overcrowded or damaged branches, which can improve the tree's overall health and increase fruit production.
• Maintain Tree Shape: Pruning helps to maintain the tree's desired shape, making it easier to manage and harvest the fruit.
• Encourage New Growth: Pruning can stimulate new growth, helping to replace old or diseased branches.
• Prevent Disease: Regular pruning can help to prevent the spread of disease by removing infected branches.
• Improve Airflow: Pruning can improve airflow through the tree, reducing the risk of fungal diseases and pest infestations.

Water management:

    The desired method of irrigation is a basin spherical for each tree size. There ought to be channel connecting basins so that irrigation of end result trees may be unbiased of the intercropped area among the tree traces that have exclusive water necessities. Increase touchy durations to water shortage are flowering time (Feb/Mar), and fruit setting (Apr/May).

Fertilizers and manures:

• Apply FYMs at the rate of 40 to 80 kg according to tree during the winter season in Dec/Jan before flowering
• Apply 3-4 kg SSP and 1.5 to 2kg of Urea 15-20 days (Jan/Feb) before flowering
• Supply a similar amount of Urea of 1.5 kg in keeping with a tree after fruit setting (Mar/Apr)
• If important 1.5 kg of Potassium Sulphate may be applied at the time of applying FYM
• Watering is essential after each utility of fertilizer.

Pests and their control:

Some common pests of citrus and their control include:

• Aphids: Aphids feed on the sap of citrus trees, causing stunted growth, yellowing of leaves, and a sticky residue on fruit and leaves. Control methods include the use of insecticidal soap, horticultural oil, or the release of natural predators such as ladybugs. 
• Whiteflies: Whiteflies also feed on the sap of citrus trees and can cause the yellowing of leaves and stunted growth. Control methods include the use of insecticidal soap, horticultural oil, sticky yellow cards to trap adults, and the release of natural predators such as ladybugs and parasitic wasps.
• Scale insects: Scale insects feed on the sap of citrus trees and can cause the yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, and reduced fruit production. Control methods include the use of horticultural oil, insecticidal soap, or the release of natural predators such as ladybugs and parasitic wasps.
• Citrus Thrips: Thrips feed on the developing fruit and leaves of citrus trees, causing scarring and deformities in the fruit. Control methods include the use of insecticidal soap, horticultural oil, or sticky yellow cards to trap adults.
• Citrus Leafminer: Leafminers feed on the leaves of citrus trees, causing curled, blistered leaves and reduced growth. Control methods include the use of insecticidal soap or the release of natural predators such as parasitic wasps.

        These are some of the most common pests of citrus and their control in plant pathology. However, the best approach to pest control is to implement an integrated pest management (IPM) program.

Diseases of citrus and their management:

Some common diseases of citrus and their management include:

1.       Citrus canker: Citrus canker is a bacterial disease that causes raised, blister-like lesions on the fruit and leaves. Management includes the removal and destruction of infected plants and the use of copper-based fungicides.

2.       Citrus greening (HLB): Citrus greening, also known as Huanglongbing or HLB, is a serious disease caused by a bacterium that is spread by the Asian citrus psyllid. Management includes the removal and destruction of infected plants, the use of psyllid-resistant rootstocks, and the implementation of an integrated pest management program to control the psyllid vector.

3.       Alternaria rot: Alternaria rot is a fungal disease that causes dark, sunken lesions on the fruit and can lead to fruit rot. Management includes proper sanitation and the use of fungicides such as captan or copper hydroxide.

4.       Phytophthora root rot: Phytophthora root rot is a fungal disease that causes root and crown rot, leading to reduced growth and fruit production. Management includes proper soil drainage, the use of Phytophthora-resistant rootstocks, and the application of fungicides such as metalaxyl or mefenoxam.

5.       Scab: Scab is a fungal disease that causes raised, corky lesions on the fruit and leaves. Management includes proper sanitation and the use of fungicides such as copper hydroxide or sulfur.

Harvesting:

• In Pakistan, the harvesting of citrus fruits usually occurs between November and May, depending on the specific variety. The most common citrus varieties grown in Pakistan include oranges, lemons, and grapefruits.
• The timing of the harvest is determined by several factors, including fruit size, maturity, and color. In general, citrus fruits are harvested when they have reached their maximum size and have developed their full flavor and color.
• To determine when to harvest, growers often examine the fruit for its size, color, and overall quality. Some growers may also test the fruit's sugar content to determine its level of ripeness.
• Once harvested, the fruit is typically washed, sorted, and packed into crates for transport to the market. To ensure maximum quality, the fruit is often handled with care to avoid bruising or damage.

References:

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24. Mango Production Technology

 Mango

Scientific Name:

Mangifira indica

Introduction:

    Mango is the second essential fruit crop in Pakistan. At present, it is grown in a place of ninety-three. Forty-two thousand hectares with manufacturing 915.7 thousand tonnes. The region below the mango crop has increased however the upward push in production is comparatively gradual. The primary mango-growing districts in the Punjab province are Multan, Bahawalpur, Muzzaffar garh and Rahim yar Khan. Inside the province of Sindh, its miles grew in Mir pur Khas, Hyderabad, and Thatta inside the province of NWFP it is grown in Peshawar and Mardan. The weather of Sindh gets warmer about one month in advance than the Punjab which has given the province the privilege to develop early sorts of mango. Sooner or later, a new trend of growing past due types in Punjab has obtained huge popularity which has prolonged the market duration and introduced the exportable surplus.

Importance:

• It also includes copper, folate, potassium, magnesium, and manganese the side of vitamins A, B5, B6, C, E, and k. Mangoes are also high in antioxidants and packed with immunity-boosting nutrients.
• In addition, the dietary benefits of mangoes encompass safety in opposition to macular degeneration and respiratory diseases.
• This delicious fruit is nutritionally advanced, and supplies of numerous vitamins and minerals. Pakistan produces 5.86 percent of global's mangoes being the third largest manufacturer. Its export is progressing ensuing in vast foreign exchange income. Mango export along with center East has additionally determined its manner to the United Kingdom and other European markets. It is believed that the call could upward push to as high as 50 percent given the right impetus and expanding the export to Germany, Japan China, and Hong Kong.

Climate and soil conditions:

The ecological conditions appropriate for mango cultivation are:

• Elevations range from 200 to 300 meters.
• suitable temperature variety is 15 to 40oC. Low temperatures are extremely dangerous. Frosts and warm winds purpose brilliant harm to the trees. Younger flowers need protection against frost and hot winds.
• Warm and humid weather is appropriate. In regions with heavy rainfall, the quality of fruit can be affected.
• Mango can be grown in a huge range of soils however well tired, deep, and fertile soils are most appropriate. Salt-affected soil is not top for its cultivation.

Propagation:

Propagation is finished by numerous means of grafting on neighborhood seedlings.

Suitable age of nursery plant for transplanting:                              1.5  to 2 years

Time for transplanting:                                                                      

In spring:              Feb/March

In Autumn:            Sept/Oct

Time to start bearing:                                                                    4-5 years

Time to complete bearing:                                                             6-7 years
Ordinary financial bearing lifestyles:                                           30-50 years
Time of flowering:                                                                          Feb/Mar

Main Varieties used in different regions of Pakistan:

Sindh:

    Sindhri, Gulabkhas, Collector, Neelum

Punjab:

    Langra, Anwar Ratol, Fajri kalan, Samer Bahisht

NWFP:

    Langra and Samer Bahisht

Baluchistan:

    Sindhri and Banganpalli

Production Technology of Mango:

        Annual Crop Water call for 500-750 mm

Irrigation intervals:

• younger flowers                                                                                  7 days
• Mature trees in winter                                                                         15-20 days
• Mature timber in the summer season                                                   8-10 days

1. Observe farm yard manure at the price of 10-30 kg in keeping with younger plants and eighty to one hundred kg in keeping with completely grown trees.
2. Practice 3-4 kg SSP, 2-3 kg Potassium Sulphate, and a couple of three kg Urea before flowering (Dec to Jan). 
3. Observe a further 2-3  kg of Urea after fruit placing in equal doses (Mar/Apr).

Pruning:

    Mango generally assumes a swish dome form shading the primary trunk. No pruning is practiced but, annually after fruit harvest diseased, dried, damaged branches and those touching the ground ought to be pruned off. To rejuvenate the orchard after every three-four years it's far really helpful that 15-20% of vintage wood should be eliminated.

Harvesting:

    Choosing must be done while the fruit is fully advanced and mature. An herbal drop of the fruit is the primary indication that the fruit is prepared for selection. One-of-a-kind types in extraordinary areas ripe at one-of-a-kind instances. In Sindh, mango sorts start ripening from may also to June. In Punjab, ripening starts evolved from June and keeps up until mid-August. In NWFP, the harvest is later which enables the extension of the duration that mangoes are available. Predicted yields range from forty to one hundred kg in line with the tree.

Pests of mango and their control:

1. Fruit Flies: Fruit flies are a major pest of mango trees and can cause significant damage to the fruit. These flies lay their eggs in the mango fruit, which can cause the fruit to rot and become unmarketable.

• Control: To control fruit flies, farmers can use integrated pest management techniques such as the use of insecticide-treated baits, cover sprays, and releasing predators of the flies such as wasps. 

2. Powdery Mildew: Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that can cause yellowing and stunted growth of the leaves and defoliation of the mango tree.

• Control: To control powdery mildew, farmers can use fungicides and adopt cultural practices such as proper spacing between trees to increase air circulation.

3. Mango Shoot Borer: A mango shoot borer is a pest that attacks the shoots and young leaves of the mango tree, causing wilting and stunted growth.

• Control: To control mango shoot borer, farmers can use insecticides and adopt cultural practices such as pruning the infected shoots and keeping the tree clean of dead leaves and debris.

4. Mango Hopper: Mango hopper is a sap-sucking insect that can cause yellowing and wilting of leaves, as well as stunted growth of the tree.

• Control: To control mango hoppers, farmers can use insecticides and adopt cultural practices such as removing any weed growth around the tree.

Diseases of Mango and their control:

1. Mango anthracnose: This is a fungal disease that causes brown, sunken lesions on the fruit and leaves, leading to fruit rot and unmarketability.

• Control: To control mango anthracnose in Pakistan, farmers can use fungicides such as carbendazim, mancozeb, and copper-based fungicides, adopt proper orchard hygiene practices to reduce the spread of the disease, and avoid planting mango trees in areas with a history of the disease. 

2. Mango powdery mildew: This is a fungal disease that causes white powdery growth on the leaves and fruit, leading to leaf yellowing and defoliation.

• Control: To control mango powdery mildew in Pakistan, farmers can use fungicides such as wettable sulfur and iodine, adopt cultural practices such as proper spacing between trees to increase air circulation, and maintain the proper balance of nutrients in the soil. 

3. Mango scab: This is a fungal disease that causes circular, scabby lesions on the fruit, leaves, and twigs.

• Control: To control mango scabs in Pakistan, farmers can use fungicides such as benomyl and propiconazole, adopt proper orchard hygiene practices such as removing and disposing of infected leaves and fruit, and maintain the proper balance of nutrients in the soil.

4. Mango dieback: This is a bacterial disease that causes sudden wilting and death of mango branches.

• Control: To control mango dieback in Pakistan, farmers can use bactericides such as copper oxychloride and streptomycin, and adopt cultural practices such as pruning infected branches, avoiding over-fertilization, and maintaining soil moisture levels.

References:

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23. Maize Production Technology

 Maize

Scientific Name:

Zea mays

Economic Importance of Maize:

Right here are some of the important thing economic advantages of maize:

1. Food: Maize is a staple meal for thousands and thousands of people internationally, offering critical vitamins and calories.
2. Feed: Maize is a primary feed supply for cattle, along with hens, farm animals, and pigs, offering important vitamins for their boom and manufacturing.
3. Biofuels: Maize can be processed into ethanol, and used as a biofuel in the transportation region, decreasing dependence on petroleum-primarily based fuels.
   
   
   
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5. Industrial use: Maize is used within the production of diffusion of commercial merchandise, inclusive of adhesives, cosmetics, and paper.
6. Export: Maize is a main export commodity for many countries, producing extensive revenue through exports to different countries.
7. Rural development: Maize manufacturing provides employment and profit possibilities for small farmers and rural communities, contributing to financial development in these regions.
8. Food security: Maize is an essential crop for food security, ensuring ok meal substances and lowering the threat of food shortages.

Production Technology of Maize:

Sowing methods:

• Drill sowing: A distance of 75 cm is maintained between rows and 15-20 cm between adjacent plants depending upon the range requirements. 
• Ridge sowing: Seeds are dibbled 15-20 cm aside on ridges spaced at 75 cm.

Seed Rate in drill sowing:

12-15kg/acre

seed rate in Ridge Sowing:

8-10 kg/Acre

Sowing time in the spring season:

A) past due hybrids/types = Mid Jan. To Mid Feb.

B) Early hybrids/varieties = Mid-Feb. To Mid Mar

Sowing time in the Autumn season:

A) past due hybrids/varieties = Mid-July to Early August.  

B) Early hybrids/varieties = 2nd & 3rd week of August.

Fertilizer Application:

N=92, P=46, K=25 kg/acre

Irrigation:

                            Spring season Autumn season

Drill sowing     8-10                         6-8

Ridge sowing     10-12                         8-10

Weed Control:

• Manual/mechanical weeding.
• Utility of appropriate weedicide.

Insect Pest Management (IPM):

Here are a few techniques for insect pest control in maize:

• Cultural practices: Crop rotation, planting ailment-resistant types, and proper irrigation and fertilization can lessen the impact of insect pests.
• Monitoring: Regular tracking of the crop for insect damage and presence is essential to ensure early detection and well-timed control.
• Physical control: Handpicking and putting off bugs, using sticky traps, and using row covers can assist in controlling bugs.
• Biological Control: the usage of herbal predators, together with ladybugs and lacewings, to govern insect pests can be an effective and eco-friendly choice.
• Chemical Control: software of pesticides may be used to manipulate insect pests, needs need to be used as a last motel and only after careful attention to the capacity environmental effects.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM): imposing an IPM application, which involves the use of an aggregate of cultural, bodily, biological, and chemically manipulate strategies, can be an effective way to control insect pests in maize.

Diseases and their control:

• Maize Rust: its miles result from the fungus Puccinia sorghi. Control measures include planting resistant types, crop rotation, and applying fungicides.
• Maize Smut: it is a result of the fungus Ustilago maydis. Manipulate measures include planting resistant types and the usage of fungicides.
• Maize Ear Rot: it's far caused by numerous fungi consisting of Fusarium verticillioides and Aspergillus flavus. Control measures include planting resistant varieties, using crop rotation, and applying fungicides.
• Maize Bacterial Wilt: it's miles due to the bacterium Xanthomonas vasicola pv. Vascular. Control measures encompass planting resistant types and heading off overhead irrigation.
• Maize Mosaic Virus: A set of RNA viruses causes Maize Mosaic Virus. Control measures encompass planting resistant sorts, averting over-fertilization, and casting off inflamed flowers.

Harvesting and Storage:

Here are some steps for harvesting and storage of maize:

• Harvesting: Maize is generally harvested when the kernels have reached adulthood and the husks have turned brown. The first-rate time to harvest maize is when the moisture content of the seeds is between 20-30%. The crop may be harvested either manually or routinely.
• Drying: After harvesting, the maize must be dried to lessen its moisture content to a safe stage for storage. This could be done by spreading the maize in a thin layer and allowing it to air dry in the solar or using mechanical dryers.
• Cleansing: earlier than storage, the maize must be wiped clean to get rid of any dust, leaves, or other debris.
• Grading: Grading involves keeping apart the maize-based on high quality and length. This ensures that the fine first-class maize is stored and bought first.
• Packaging: The maize can be packaged in bags, packing containers, or bulk containers for storage.
• Storage: Maize ought to be stored in a dry and properly-ventilated place to prevent moisture buildup and save you from spoilage. The temperature of the storage region has to be saved between 10-15°C to keep away from insect infestations and mold growth.
• Monitoring: Ordinary tracking of the maize in the garage is necessary to check for any signs and symptoms of spoilage or insect infestations. If any troubles are determined, the maize ought to be eliminated and disposed of straight away to prevent the spread of contamination.

References:

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22. Sugarcane Production Technology

 Sugarcane

Scientific Name:

Saccharum officinarum

Sugarcane Biology:

• Sugarcane is a crucial tropical crop having C4 carbohydrate metabolism which, allied with its perennial nature, makes it one of the most productive cultivated flowers. 
• It's far more commonly used to supply sugar, accounting for almost two-thirds of global manufacturing. Lately, it has gained improved interest due to its essential potential for bio-fuel manufacturing. 
• But, sugarcane has one of the different complex crop genomes, which has long hampered the improvement of sugarcane genetics to guide breeding for crop improvement programs. Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum L, a part of the Poaceae family (Grasses), and the Andropogonae tribe, which encompasses the best polyploid species.

Economic Importance of Sugarcane:

• Sugarcane is a leading cash crop, which performs a huge role in our country-wide economy next to cotton. It has a 0.7% share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2017-18. 
• In Punjab, during 2018-19 sugarcane turned into planted in an area of 710.93 thousand hectares having a production of 44.91 million tones with a mean cane yield of sixty-eight. 
• 51 t/ha confirmed a lower of 17.2% in cultivated places and 18.5% in manufacturing during the last 12 months. 
• It gives raw fabric to sugarcane enterprises particularly and to the chemical & paper industries in well-known. It additionally may assist in minimizing the electricity crises in us by way of co-generation. 
• The sugarcane tops serve as fodder for cattle all through the shortage of fodder in winter. The sugarcane segment became one of the parts of the Ayub Agricultural studies Institute, Faisalabad in 1962 and was upgraded to Sugarcane Research Institute, Faisalabad in 1978. 
• The main targets of this institute are to adapt high cane and sugar-yielding varieties that can be proof against biotic stresses sorts together with the improvement of stepped-forward manufacturing generation.

Production Technology of Sugarcane:

Land Preparation:

• Sugarcane is a deep-rooted crop and right land preparation performs a critical role in the improvement of cane root machines and achieving the best increase in yield. Land should be organized by using deep plowing at least after each year. The soil ought to be disked.
• It's far very vital that well-rotten farmyard manure (FYM) should be applied a month previous to land coaching. Press dust from the sugar enterprise is another excellent source of natural remember and nutrients. Inexperienced manuring might also serve the cause.
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• The soil within the prepared subject has to be friable and well-labored so that complete germination takes region and afterward flowers develop with no inhibiting boundaries.

Planting Time:

• The selection of the correct planting technique and schedule substantially impacts crop growth, maturity, and yield. When considering that low temperature and moisture pressure are adverse to germination and subsequent establishment, the planting season in subtropical regions is ideally spring. But in regions where iciness is excessive sufficient to limit increase or maybe kill sugarcane, planting cloth may additionally best be to be had in autumn, as a result, necessitating pre-wintry weather planting. In tropical areas, especially wherein irrigation isn't always practiced, a sufficiently moist season has to be decided on for planting and established order.
• There are planting seasons: fall and spring. Fall planting begins from the first week of September and keeps to mid-October within Punjab and Sindh, while within the NWFP planting is performed in October and November. Spring planting starts evolved from mid-February and lasts till the end of March within Punjab and Sindh. Those planting times are strictly determined because overdue planting can reduce the yield by as a lot as 30 percent.
• September planted crop normally produces 25 to 35 % higher yield. In Pakistan, Planting time Sugarcane is typically accomplished in the autumn and spring seasons. Autumn planting is of high yield and excessive sugar recovery compared to spring planting. In reality, September planting offers very luxuriant growth, which is at risk of accommodations in most cases. The crop gives a suitable look till June-July but is issued to accommodations in July or maybe in advance if there are windstorms or immoderate rains. Round 26 is consistent with cent of the growers planted sugarcane in October, forty-five according to cent on November, 2 keeping cent in December, and seven percent in February.

Seed Rate and Planting pattern:

    Appropriate seed charge and spacing are often ignored by farmers, with the result that the greatest plant population, that's a critical thing in sugarcane production, needs to be performed within the discipline. The seed fee and spacing between rows range with variety. Thick-cane cultivars like 'BL-four', 'Triton', and 'PR-1000' require a better seed rate and extra area among the rows than thin and medium-cane varieties. 8 to 9 tonnes of stripped cane according to hectare for thick types, and 6 to seven tones for medium to skinny types is enough to produce a favored plant population of about 0.15 million canes/ha. A spacing of 1 m between the rows of wide varieties, and zero.60-0.75 m for thin to medium sorts permits enough area for operations like intercultural and earthing up.

Method of Planting:

• Sugarcane ought to be planted at a row spacing of ninety cm to at least one m.  Budded double sets must be positioned to give up inside the furrows including a 2 to the three-cm soil layer. About 3.2 to 4 tonnes of seed (80 to hundred maunds) of thin cane varieties and four to 5 tonnes of seed (hundred to 120 maunds) of thick types is enough to plant one acre.

• Research has shown appropriate yield will increase in tonnage and sugar in line with acre while the planted row was widened from the V-furrow to the 15- to 18-inch furrow. It confirmed similar yield increases because the furrow width became increased from 15 to 18 to 24 inches. Based totally on this research and the problems encountered by growers in handling furrow widths of more than 18 inches, it's miles counseled that growers use a fifteen- to 18-inch furrow for planting in 2001. Growers who can efficiently handle the 24-inch width furrow are endorsed to accomplish that. It is also suggested that the furrow opener be constructed to depart an extensive bottom with a mild indentation on each aspect of the furrow and a gentle ridge of loose soil within the center of the furrow backside. This beginning configuration can be obtained by using attaching an unmarried disk on each aspect of the row opener to dig out the furrow facets and deposit the soil within the furrow middle. Some growers have discovered that packing rows ahead of starting will provide more uniform furrows while commencing with a 3-row opener.

Treatment                                                 Cane yield (t/ha)

Ordinary setts (unsoaked)                             82.76

Soaked in water                                             62.05

Soaked in cow urine                                     61.19

Soaked in 20% KmnO4                                     67. 16

Varieties:

1. CP-43-33

2. CP- 77-400

3. CP 81-1435

4. ABT superb

5. BF - 162

6. SPSG - 26

7. SPF - 234

8. BL -4

9. T - 10

Fertilizer Application:

• Nutrient performs the most crucial role in sugarcane cultivation. There may be absolute confidence that a sugarcane crop wishes nutrients because fertilizers are liable for almost 50 % of the yield in sugarcane.
• Throughout the early stage of the sugarcane plant (in the course of tillering), from the third to the 6th months after planting, sugarcane needs nutrients. These vitamins are essential for proper crop improvement.
• Growing crops continuously and decreasing the usage of green manure & natural manure reduces the fertility of the soil.
• Typically, fertilizers advice range from nation to kingdom relying upon the soil type, crop length, yield level & irrigation practices. Before fertilizer software, soil tests have to be executed to recognize approximately all the soil nutrient deficiencies and corrective measures for reaching the most reliable yield.
• Therefore, before sowing, plowing must be carried out by using spreading rotted manure of cow dung at the rate of 200 quintals consistent per hectare.
• Aside from this, the sugarcane crop requires hundred and eighty-two hundred kg of nitrogen, 60-eighty kg of phosphorus, 50-60 kg of potash, and 30 kg of sulfur.
• On the side of this, an aggregate of 25 kg of micronutrients ought to be used in keeping with hectare.
• Do not blend micronutrients with primary nutrients.
• Observe one-third quantity of nitrogen and the full amount of phosphorus, potash & sulfur at the sowing time. Practice two-thirds of the final nitrogen in 2-three instances within the standing crop after irrigation in the evening at appropriate moisture.

Weeds Control:

    Suitable land training is a critical component in controlling weeds. For proper weed control, Gesapax combi (80 WP) may be applied @ 1.Four kg in keeping with an acre in medium textured soils and 1.8 kg per acre in heavy soils in 100 to 120 liters of water. The weedicide has to be used with the recommendation of technical experts.

Irrigation:

    It's essential to attend to the irrigation requirements of sugarcane, in particular in the summer months. Farmers should plan their acreage to be planted under cane crops according to the to-be-had water at their farm. Keep in mind that each subject should get at least 16 to twenty irrigations in the course of the crop year adjusting the irrigation agenda consistent with rainfall in summer.

Diseases Control:

• For controlling sugarcane illnesses, use wholesome seeds that are ailment-unfastened and ideally plant ailment-resistant varieties. Treat the root with fungicide/s before planting. The diseased vegetation from the sphere needs to be removed and both buried or burnt. Seed can be handled with hot water at 520 C for 30 minutes.
• Warmth therapy is becoming extra common at seed-production centers to rid seeds of ratoon stunting disorder, grassy shoot, and leaf scale. This treatment includes submerging the cane setts in water heated to 520 C for two hours. Inside the hot air treatment or the moist hot air treatment, entire cane stalks are handled at 540 C for eight and 4 hours, respectively. The warmest air remedy is desired, however, because the new air treatment injures the buds, reducing germination in the long run. When planting a brand new crop, it's miles vital to apply seed from samples of the pleasant patches of cane crop, free of disease and bug pests. Disorder-unfastened, the properly-nice seed will increase yield by 10-15%.

Harvesting:

• Prevent irrigation 25 to 30 days before the harvest of the crop and no longer leave the harvested crop for lengthy within the area. In case it needs to be saved for a prolonged period, it should be protected from the trash. One-of-a-kind types planted may be harvested in step with their maturity. Harvesting of early maturing types can be started throughout November, mid-season varieties in December, and the late maturing sorts at some stage in January. The crop harvested at some point in February-March gives an accurate ratoon crop.
• Harvesting is achieved while the crop has matured and ripened. Early sorts and ratoon crops are the first to be harvested. While the stem is close to the surface, great vigilance is needed to reduce most of the stem, which is treasured each for its weight and sugar content material. The harvested cane must be immediately hauled to the mill otherwise weight and sucrose losses may occur. For this purpose, delivery needs to be arranged earlier.
  

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21. Cotton Production Technology

 Cotton

Scientific Name:

Gossypium herbaceum

Botany of Cotton:

It belongs to the circle of the family "Malvaceae".

Kinds: 

1. Gossypium hirsutum (American cotton) – used for fiber
2. Gossypium arboretum (Desi cotton) – used for cotton
3. Gossypium barbadense (Egyptian cotton)

• Root: It has a tap-root solid gadget up to two hundred cm deep in the soil.
• Stem: Erect, circular and woody stem (1-five toes excessive) with several lateral branches. The most crucial step includes branches and leaves but no flowers. Units are of two types i.e. Monopodial branches (2-4 in number) do now not endure flower and fruit, and sympodial branches that directly undergo flower and fruit. 
• Leaves: Leaves are hairy with 5-7 lobes.
• Flower: The flower bud is referred to as rectangular (Gudi). Self-pollination happens in cotton.
• Fruit: Fruit is known as a boll or pill. Immature segments of the boll upon its beginning are known as locules which can be 2-6 in variety. While the boll opens at adulthood, it yields a fluffy mass of fibers called lint with seeds Lint + seed is called seed cotton at the same time as seeds are known as cotton seeds. It contains 15% protein and 25% oil.

Economic Importance of Cotton:

• In Pakistan function of cotton in GDP is 1% and in value, the addition is 5.1% location below cotton cultivation is two.917 million hectares, production in step 12 months is 10.074 million tones and yield in line with hectare is 587kg. 
• Pakistan is in 4th wide variety in cotton production. 
• China is the first maximum cotton generating us within international India and U.S.A. They are on 2nd and third range. 
• The middle area of cotton production in Pakistan is Multan, Khanewal, Vehari, Lodhran, Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, D.G. Khan, Rajanpur, Muzaffargarh, Layyah, and Rahimyar Khan.

Climate and Locality:

• Grow in Tropical and sub-tropical regions.
• Soil temperature must be 15-20 degree Celsius. 
• Harvesting app. 150-200 days.

Properties of soil for cotton growth:

• It grows well in fertile soil.
• It ranges from sandy to very heavy clays.
• The best cotton lands are the mixtures of clay and sandy loam.

Production Technology of Cotton:

Seed-bed preparation:

    Deep plowing should be carried out to break a hard pan because its root penetrates deep into the soil. The steps for land preparation are 1 rotavator, 3 cultivations, and a pair of plankings.

Sowing time and varieties:

A) Early sowing: 15 March - 15 May additionally

Early sowing varieties: Ali Akbar-703, Sitara-008, Neelum-121, Tarzan-1, MNH- 886, VH- 259, BH-178, CIM-599, CIM-602, FH-118, FH-142, IR NIAB- 824, IUB-222, Sitara 11M, A -555, K2-181, Sayban-201, Tarzan-2

B) Late sowing: 15th April - 15th May can also be done.

Late sowing varieties: IR-3701, MG-6, Ali Akbar-802, GN Hybrid-2085

    Recommended sowing time for higher Punjab is April, for critical Punjab, it can also and for South Punjab is May and June

Seed Rate:

• 6-10 kg/acre for bed sowing
• 8-12 kg/acre for drill sowing.

Sowing methods:

1. Bed Sowing
2. Drill Sowing

1. Bed Sowing:

• Ridge to Ridge distance = 60-75 cm
• Plant to Plant distance = 9-12 inches
• After the seed mattress, beds are made through ridge-bed shaper which makes 75 cm huge bed furrows. Furrow intensity is 7 inches. On both margins of beds, sowing can be accomplished manually by using labor, or a mattress planter may be used.
• In the case of manual sowing, irrigation is implemented in furrows and just after irrigation, 2-four seeds are sown manually 2.5 cm above the water stage.
• In the planter sowing, sowing is executed on both the beds' margins using a bed planter. After sowing, irrigation is applied in furrows 5 cm beneath the seed.

2. Drill Sowing:

• Row to Row distance = 75 cm
• P to P distance = 6-9 inches (through thinning at 20-25 DAS)
• Seed intensity 2-2.5 inches
• After first irrigation, it is earthing up that needs to be executed in alternate rows to make beds. Its miles managed to keep irrigation water up to twenty-30% and excess water will be tired out.

Fertilizer Application:

• For early sowing apply 161 N, 46-70 P2O5, and 50 kg/acre K2O
• For late sowing use 80 N, 35-58 P2O5, and 38 kg/acre K2O
• P and K use whole at first and N applies in 3 terms
• 1/3 at sowing
• 1/3 at first irrigation
• 1/3 at flowering
• If deficiency signs and symptoms of B and Zn seem, those ought to be carried out through foliar utility at forty-five, 60, and 90 days after sowing. Boric acid (17%) @ 300g per100L water (five kg) and ZnSO4 (33%) @ 250 g per a hundred L water (6 kg)

Irrigation:

    6-8 irrigations are required for cotton in both methods.

Measures for Plant Protection:

Weeds:

• These can reason up to 20-30% loss in cotton yield due to weeds.
• Essential weeds of cotton are Itsit, deela, tandla, lehli, chulai, kulfa, madhana, lumb ghaas, hazardani, chibber, parthinam, makro, hulhul etc.

Physical Control:

• Hoeing through khurpa or kasula

Chemical Control:

A) Pre-emergence herbicides: those are carried out earlier than crop emergence within 24 hrs of crop sowing

1. Pendimethalin @ 1L/A both for large-leaved weeds and grasses

2. S-metolachlor @ 800ml/A each for enormous leaved weeds and grasses

3. Pendimethalin + S-metolachlor (dual gold) @ 800ml/A

4. Acetochlor+ Pendimethalin @1L/A

B) Post-emergency herbicides:

1. Haloxyfop @350 ml/A for grasses

2. Quizilafop-p-ethyl 15EC @ one hundred-a hundred and twenty ml/A for all weeds

3. Quizilafop-p-ethyl 5EC @ four hundred-500 ml/A for all weeds

Insect Pests:

1. Sucking bugs:

• Aphid, jassid, whitefly, thrips, mites, mealy insects, dusky cotton malicious program
• A spray of Confidor, Imdacloprid, Buperofezin, Acetamiprid, Talstar, and many others.

2. Borers:

• I noticed bollworms, red bollworms, American bollworms, military worm
• A spray of Karate, Cypermethrin, Spinosad, Chlorpyrifos

Diseases and their Symptoms:

Verticillium wilt: A fungal disorder that reasons yellowing and wilting of leaves and stems.

Fusarium wilt: A fungal disease that influences the roots and stem of the plant, inflicting yellowing, wilting, and eventual death.

Bacterial blight: A bacterial disorder that reasons yellowing and wilting of leaves and might additionally cause plant death.

Cotton leafroll dwarf virus: A viral ailment that reasons stunting and yellowing of the plant.

Target spot is a fungal disease that reasons circular spots at the leaves, mainly defoliation, and decreased yield.

Alternaria leaf spot: A fungal sickness that reasons round or irregularly fashioned darkish spots at the leaves, which can cause defoliation and decreased yield.

Harvesting:

    The primary steps in the cotton harvesting manner are:

• Maturity assessment: The cotton flowers are monitored for adulthood and boll beginning to determine the most useful time for harvesting.
• Cutting: The cotton flowers are cut with the use of either a mechanical cotton picker or a guide cotton stripper. The mechanical picker makes use of a rotating drum to cast off the cotton bolls from the plant, while the manual stripper involves manually doing away with the bolls by hand.
• Gathering: The harvested cotton bolls are amassed into massive piles or into cotton modules, which are large cylindrical bales of cotton.
• Transport: The harvested cotton is transported to a gin (short for "engine"), which is processed to separate the cotton fibers from the seeds and different plant debris.
• Ginning: The gin uses a mixture of mechanical and manual methods to separate the cotton fibers from the seeds and other plant particles.
• Baling: The wiped-clean cotton fibers are then compressed into bales, which are packaged and saved for later use within the manufacturing of cotton products.

    The timing and methods used for cotton harvesting can affect the first class and amount of cotton produced, so it's far critical to control the manner to maximize yields and limit waste cautiously.

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