40. Production Technology of Stevia

Stevia

 Introduction:

    Stevia is a plant species native to South America, particularly Paraguay and Brazil. It is a member of the sunflower family and has been used for centuries by the Guarani people of Paraguay as a natural sweetener for their tea and medicinal preparations.

    Stevia's sweet taste comes from a group of compounds called steviol glycosides, which are present in plant leaves. These compounds are 200-300 times sweeter than table sugar but have no calories or effect on blood sugar levels, making stevia an attractive alternative to artificial sweeteners.

    In the 20th century, stevia gained popularity as a sweetener in Japan, where it was approved for use in food and beverages in the 1970s. Since then, it has been approved as a sweetener in many countries around the world, including the United States and the European Union.

    Stevia is now commonly used as a sweetener in a variety of products, including soft drinks, baked goods, and other processed foods. It is also available in a granulated form for home use as a sugar substitute in cooking and baking.

Botanical Characteristics:

    Stevia, scientifically known as Stevia rebaudiana, is a perennial plant that can reach a height of 60-100 cm. The leaves of the plant grow opposite to each other and are sessile, ranging in size from 2 cm to 10 cm. Each plant can have up to 40-45 leaves.

    Stevia is typically grown in semi-humid subtropical regions with temperatures ranging from 20-30 degrees Celsius. It requires well-fertile soil that is rich in organic matter and has a pH level between 6.5-7.5. Sandy loam soil is preferred for cultivation, while soils with high salt or salinity are not suitable for growing stevia.

Production Technology

Land Preparation:

    Before planting stevia, it is crucial to properly prepare the field. This involves plowing the land 2-3 times to bring the soil to a fine tilth. During the plowing process, trichoderma should be mixed thoroughly with the soil. In the final plowing, farmyard manure (FYM) should be incorporated into the soil to provide additional nutrients.

Soil Type and climate:

    Stevia can be grown in a variety of soils, although it performs best in sandy loam to loamy soil with good drainage and high organic content. It is important to avoid cultivating stevia in saline soils, as these can be harmful to the plant's growth and yield. The ideal pH range for stevia cultivation is between 6 and 8.

Nursery Establishment:

    To start stevia cultivation, it is recommended to sow the seeds indoors in containers for 6-8 weeks. After sowing, it is important to cover the beds with peat moss and provide adequate watering to retain moisture in the soil.

    For bushier growth, it is recommended to pinch the tips of the plant before transplanting. This encourages the growth of lateral shoots and results in a fuller plant.

    When the seedlings are ready for transplantation, typically after 6-8 weeks, they should be transplanted onto raised beds that are 60cm wide and 15cm in height. It is important to water the seedling beds 24 hours before transplanting to ensure that the seedlings can be easily uprooted and are turgid at the time of transplantation.

Sowing

Time of sowing:

    The ideal time for sowing stevia is between February and March. This period provides optimal conditions for seed germination and early growth of the plant. It

Spacing:

    When transplanting stevia seedlings, they should be spaced approximately 18 inches apart to provide enough room for the plants to grow and spread out. The row spacing should be 20-24 inches apart, allowing for adequate airflow and room for maintenance between the rows.

Seed Rate:

    When transplanting stevia seedlings into the main fields, it is recommended to use a plant density of approximately 30,000 seedlings per acre. 

Raised Bed Preparation:

    Forming raised beds is considered the most effective and cost-efficient method for growing stevia. The recommended height for the raised bed is 15cm or half a foot, with a width of 15cm or half a foot as well. To ensure adequate spacing between the plants, a distance of 15cm is suggested between each plant, with a distance of 30cm or one foot between each row.

    By utilizing raised beds and following the recommended spacing, it is possible to establish approximately 50,000 stevia plants within one acre of land. 

Fertilizer:

    To achieve optimal production of stevia, it is recommended to apply a specific amount of fertilizers to the soil. Generally, two bags of urea, one bag of DAP, and one bag of potassium sulfate should be applied per acre of land.

Irrigation:

    Irrigation for stevia cultivation is typically performed using either sprinkler systems or drip irrigation. As the plant does not require excessive water, light irrigation is recommended at regular intervals. During the summer months, it is recommended to irrigate at intervals of every 8 days to prevent over-watering. It is important to avoid allowing water to stagnate in the field, as this can harm the stevia crop.

Weed control:

To control weeds in the field, hand weeding is typically performed. The first weeding is usually carried out approximately one month after planting, with subsequent weeding conducted every two weeks thereafter. Intercultural operations are also performed to remove weeds since the crop is grown on raised beds, which makes it easy for labor to access and maintain. By carefully managing weed growth, growers can help ensure that their stevia plants have the necessary resources to grow and produce a high-quality yield.

Plant Protection Measures

Pests and Their control:

    Aphids are soft-bodied sucking insects that are nearly transparent. When present in large numbers, they can cause leaves to yellow and die prematurely.

Control:

    To manage aphids, growers can use chrysoperla predators at a rate of 4-6 thousand per acre or use 50 grams of neem concentrate per liter. These methods are effective in reducing the population of aphids and preventing damage to stevia plants. 

Disease and their control:

    Stevia is vulnerable to root rot disease, which is caused by a fungus that is often present in the soil. The disease first appears as yellowing of the lower leaves, which then spreads to the upper parts of the plant and causes them to dry up. Root rot is most common in the early stages of growth and can cause the roots of affected plants to become weak and easily break.

Control:

    To control root rot disease, growers can mix 400 grams of Topsin-M with 100 liters of water and spray it around the roots of the affected plants. This method is effective in managing the spread of the fungus and helping to prevent further damage to the crop.

Harvesting:

    Harvesting of Stevia can be done when the plant attains a height of 40-60 cm. Flowering is induced by shorter days, which can impact the quality and quantity of the stevioside content.

Yield:

    Typically, three to four harvests are conducted annually, resulting in an average yield of 3-3.5 tons of dry green leaves per hectare. Stevia plants can be grown for up to five years after the initial planting, providing a sustainable source of leaves for production.

Drying and Threshing

    The drying time for Stevia depends on factors such as weather conditions and loading density, typically ranging from 24 to 48 hours at a temperature of 40°C to 50°C. Once the leaves are dried, a specialized thresher/separator is required to remove the dry leaves from the stems.:

References:

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27. What is Sustainable Agriculture?

 Sustainable Agriculture:

1. Sustainable agriculture is a way of managing the resources used in agriculture, specializing in fulfilling the fundamental wishes of humans and aspects with the aid of side retaining the natural sources and thus improving the quality of the environment.
   

• It is intended to guard or protect the environment, keep soil fertility, or even extend the herbal resource base of the earth.
• Goals to minimize using inputs from nonrenewable sources and petroleum-based products and replace them with those from renewable assets.

Benefits or advantages of sustainable agriculture:

Animal welfare:

Wildlife:

    Cultivating food without using fertilizers and pesticides reduces the number of pollinators killed by using these chemical substances. Less manure makes its way into the water gadget, lowering the impact on marine existence.

Antibiotic Use:

    Antibiotic use is constrained to the remedy of contamination. Farmed animals aren't given pointless antibiotics, and farmers are much more likely to give them additional space an excellent way to lessen disease transmission.

Environment:

Pesticides and Fertilizers:

    The use of chemical insecticides and fertilizers is constrained. Less of these risky chemical compounds are introduced into the surroundings.

Soil Biodiversity:

Sustainable strategies of agriculture help to restore the nutrients to the soil that are stripped by business agriculture practices.

Local Economies and workers:

Improved Work Environment:

    Higher welfare for animals means better employee welfare, which includes a more secure, less strenuous painting environment.

Localization:

    Sustainable strategies of manufacturing are more likely to support and rely on the neighborhood economy. Farms are now not shopping products, which include fertilizers and pesticides, from out of doors their groups, and alternatively are relying greater closely on nearby sources together with labor.

Public Health:

Antibiotic Resistance:

    Due to the fact antibiotics are not used as a preventive medicinal drug in sustainable agriculture, enforcing sustainable techniques of production increases the effectiveness of antibiotics in treating people.

Pandemic:

    Commercial agriculture, in which animals are kept in tight quarters, is a driver of ailment. The situations of animals on these farms offer the best environment for the unfolding of sickness from animals to people.

Methods for sustainable agriculture:

    There are some agriculture practices that can be applied to support the sustainable manufacturing of foods:

Agroforestry:

    It is the exercise of integrating bushes into fields used for crop production or cattle. The advantages of agroforestry encompass controlling erosion, providing shade and protection from the wind, and supporting local wildlife.

Applying Integrated Pest Management:

    Using the same land to raise farm animals and crops reduces the need for fertilizers, as the manure from the farm animals affords vitamins to the vegetation. This practice also allows manipulation of soil erosion and has no impact on crop yield.

Managing the whole system and landscapes:

Taking a whole-farm system approach to agriculture balances natural assets, agricultural hobbies, profit, and public duty. Complete-farm techniques help the pleasant of soil and water in addition to nearby local wildlife.

Planting cover crops:

    Cover crops are crops that are planted to increase the best of soil, smother weeds, beautify water availability, help to manipulate pests, and sluggish erosion. They're planted in rotation with different crops and offer far-needed damage to the land which could result in accelerated yield and the attraction of additional pollinators.

Reducing tillage:

    Tillage is the exercise of upsetting soil in preparation for planting. It can be carried out via stirring, digging, or overturning the soil. Reducing tillage decreases soil erosion, improves water quality, and will increase soil health.

Disadvantages of sustainable agriculture:

1. Due to the fact sustainable agriculture specializes in less use of machines. So, it takes greater time for farmers to perform farm operations.
2. It’s no longer so easy to grow soil fertility fame without the resource of chemical fertilizers.
3. It's miles greater steeply-priced to produce any product sustainably as compared to a non-sustainable manner.
4. Land, labor, and capital are not used to their fullest performance.
5. Greater work is needed.
6. Short shelf existence. Decay takes vicinity hastily in food this is produced frequently, major to brief shelf. 
7. Barely fertile regions.

Pros of Sustainable agriculture:

1. Source of raw materials: Modern agriculture provides a reliable source of raw materials for various industries, including food, fiber, and fuel.
2. Greener environment: By implementing sustainable farming practices, modern agriculture can help reduce the negative impacts of farming on the environment, such as soil degradation and water pollution. For example, conservation tillage, crop rotation, and integrated pest management can help reduce the use of harmful chemicals and improve soil health.
3. Improved health: Modern agriculture can help improve public health by producing healthier, safer, and more nutritious food. By using sustainable farming practices, farmers can reduce the risk of food-borne illnesses and provide consumers with healthier food options.
4. Forging international cooperation: Modern agriculture can help build bridges between countries and foster international cooperation. For example, by sharing knowledge and expertise, countries can work together to promote sustainable farming practices and address global food security challenges.
5. National Revenue: Modern agriculture can also contribute to a country's economy by increasing the efficiency and productivity of the agricultural sector. This, in turn, can generate income and employment opportunities, leading to a boost in the national revenue.

References:

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23. Maize Production Technology

 Maize

Scientific Name:

Zea mays

Economic Importance of Maize:

Right here are some of the important thing economic advantages of maize:

1. Food: Maize is a staple meal for thousands and thousands of people internationally, offering critical vitamins and calories.
2. Feed: Maize is a primary feed supply for cattle, along with hens, farm animals, and pigs, offering important vitamins for their boom and manufacturing.
3. Biofuels: Maize can be processed into ethanol, and used as a biofuel in the transportation region, decreasing dependence on petroleum-primarily based fuels.
   
   
   
4. 
   
5. Industrial use: Maize is used within the production of diffusion of commercial merchandise, inclusive of adhesives, cosmetics, and paper.
6. Export: Maize is a main export commodity for many countries, producing extensive revenue through exports to different countries.
7. Rural development: Maize manufacturing provides employment and profit possibilities for small farmers and rural communities, contributing to financial development in these regions.
8. Food security: Maize is an essential crop for food security, ensuring ok meal substances and lowering the threat of food shortages.

Production Technology of Maize:

Sowing methods:

• Drill sowing: A distance of 75 cm is maintained between rows and 15-20 cm between adjacent plants depending upon the range requirements. 
• Ridge sowing: Seeds are dibbled 15-20 cm aside on ridges spaced at 75 cm.

Seed Rate in drill sowing:

12-15kg/acre

seed rate in Ridge Sowing:

8-10 kg/Acre

Sowing time in the spring season:

A) past due hybrids/types = Mid Jan. To Mid Feb.

B) Early hybrids/varieties = Mid-Feb. To Mid Mar

Sowing time in the Autumn season:

A) past due hybrids/varieties = Mid-July to Early August.  

B) Early hybrids/varieties = 2nd & 3rd week of August.

Fertilizer Application:

N=92, P=46, K=25 kg/acre

Irrigation:

                            Spring season Autumn season

Drill sowing     8-10                         6-8

Ridge sowing     10-12                         8-10

Weed Control:

• Manual/mechanical weeding.
• Utility of appropriate weedicide.

Insect Pest Management (IPM):

Here are a few techniques for insect pest control in maize:

• Cultural practices: Crop rotation, planting ailment-resistant types, and proper irrigation and fertilization can lessen the impact of insect pests.
• Monitoring: Regular tracking of the crop for insect damage and presence is essential to ensure early detection and well-timed control.
• Physical control: Handpicking and putting off bugs, using sticky traps, and using row covers can assist in controlling bugs.
• Biological Control: the usage of herbal predators, together with ladybugs and lacewings, to govern insect pests can be an effective and eco-friendly choice.
• Chemical Control: software of pesticides may be used to manipulate insect pests, needs need to be used as a last motel and only after careful attention to the capacity environmental effects.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM): imposing an IPM application, which involves the use of an aggregate of cultural, bodily, biological, and chemically manipulate strategies, can be an effective way to control insect pests in maize.

Diseases and their control:

• Maize Rust: its miles result from the fungus Puccinia sorghi. Control measures include planting resistant types, crop rotation, and applying fungicides.
• Maize Smut: it is a result of the fungus Ustilago maydis. Manipulate measures include planting resistant types and the usage of fungicides.
• Maize Ear Rot: it's far caused by numerous fungi consisting of Fusarium verticillioides and Aspergillus flavus. Control measures include planting resistant varieties, using crop rotation, and applying fungicides.
• Maize Bacterial Wilt: it's miles due to the bacterium Xanthomonas vasicola pv. Vascular. Control measures encompass planting resistant types and heading off overhead irrigation.
• Maize Mosaic Virus: A set of RNA viruses causes Maize Mosaic Virus. Control measures encompass planting resistant sorts, averting over-fertilization, and casting off inflamed flowers.

Harvesting and Storage:

Here are some steps for harvesting and storage of maize:

• Harvesting: Maize is generally harvested when the kernels have reached adulthood and the husks have turned brown. The first-rate time to harvest maize is when the moisture content of the seeds is between 20-30%. The crop may be harvested either manually or routinely.
• Drying: After harvesting, the maize must be dried to lessen its moisture content to a safe stage for storage. This could be done by spreading the maize in a thin layer and allowing it to air dry in the solar or using mechanical dryers.
• Cleansing: earlier than storage, the maize must be wiped clean to get rid of any dust, leaves, or other debris.
• Grading: Grading involves keeping apart the maize-based on high quality and length. This ensures that the fine first-class maize is stored and bought first.
• Packaging: The maize can be packaged in bags, packing containers, or bulk containers for storage.
• Storage: Maize ought to be stored in a dry and properly-ventilated place to prevent moisture buildup and save you from spoilage. The temperature of the storage region has to be saved between 10-15°C to keep away from insect infestations and mold growth.
• Monitoring: Ordinary tracking of the maize in the garage is necessary to check for any signs and symptoms of spoilage or insect infestations. If any troubles are determined, the maize ought to be eliminated and disposed of straight away to prevent the spread of contamination.

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8. Entomology and its Importance

 Definition:

They have a look at insects and their relationship to people, their surroundings, and other organisms.

Objectives:

The main goal of the department of agricultural entomology is to teach diverse guides related to insects and their position in agricultural structures. Also, it pursues to graduate college students, keep an inventory of major insect/vertebrate pests of crops and expand appropriate technologies for minimizing the manufacturing losses as a result of them. At gift, the department has focused its attempt to expand integrated pest management technology as follows:

I. To survey, surveillance, and taxonomical identification of primary agricultural insect pest and their predators, parasitoids, and parasites in each crop commodity.

Ii. To educate and develop appropriate techniques for IPM technologies.

Iii. To broaden technology based on bio-manage techniques to control insect pests and weeds.

Iv. To expand suitable technologies based on botanicals and natural merchandise to manipulate insect/ non-insect pests (mites, snails, slugs, and rodents).

V. To expand technologies to reduce the unsafe effect on human health and the environment brought about because of the injudicious use of artificial chemical insecticides.

Vi. To expand suitable mass-rearing technology for economically crucial bugs.

Vii. To develop appropriate technology for rodent control.

Scope of Entomology in Pakistan:

The scope of entomology in Pakistan may be very excessive. Pakistan is an agricultural us so entomologist works on exclusive bugs and pests to provide first-class seed and food.

Entomologists’ information on human sickness, viruses, agriculture, the evolution of diseases, ecology, and biodiversity. Entomology is split into distinct lessons and sub-classes for higher expertise and studies. This article will assist students to clean the scope of entomology in Pakistan, the career of entomology in Pakistan, personnel, authorities, semi-authorities, pesticides companies jobs after bs entomology, which Universities are imparting MSc Hons Entomology in Pakistan, entomology a good profession, entomologist job description, entomology activity income in Pakistan, entomologist degree necessities in Pakistan.

Role of insects in the environment:

    Insects play a treasured function in our Natural world. As an example:

• ·         Bees and a few species of flies pollinate most results and vegetables.
• ·         Many bugs are sources of food.
• ·         For birds, fishes, reptiles, amphibians, and spiders.
• ·         A few insects produce beneficial products including honey, wax, shellac, and silk.
• ·         A big wide variety are decomposers that help hold nutrient cycles inside the surroundings.
• ·         Different insects are taken into consideration as useful as predators and parasites.
• ·         With the aid of feeding upon insects or mites considered to be pests.

Even though enormously few types of bugs are pests, they may be the ones most customarily talked about. A few insects consisting of aphids, leafhoppers, and thrips spread plant diseases. Insects together with mosquitoes and midges may additionally unfold deadly or debilitating diseases to People, farm animals, and wildlife.

Insect Morphology:

Insects possess the following characteristics: 3 frame regions; three Pairs of legs; one pair of antennae; and None, one, or pairs of wings. Legs and other appendages are often significantly Changed by the healthy of the insect’s habits and environment.

Insect Body:

•     Head:

Head, thorax, and abdomen. The adult insect’s body is made of three elements (head, thorax, and stomach) and is supported through a hard frame wall, the exoskeleton. The exoskeleton has a flexible, pinnacle layer called the cuticle, which contains a layer of wax and helps to save you from desiccation. The exoskeleton of an immature insect isn't normally as hard as that of the adults, due to the fact the cuticle isn't always absolutely formed. The thorax, placed between the pinnacle and stomach, is made of 3 segments: the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. Every phase has one pair of legs. Further, the mesothorax and metathorax may also bear one pair of wings. A few insects, which include beetles and grasshoppers, have a thickened, protective pair of wings. The stomach contains numerous segments, each joined using a bendy membrane so it could amplify and contract to aid with respiratory. Some insects have tail-like appendages on the top of the stomach, called cerci.

• Legs:

An essential category characteristic of insects is the presence of three pairs of jointed legs. Nearly all person insects have legs, and a few immatures do now not have legs, but will as adults. An insect’s legs are adapted in line with how the insect lives and behaves. For an instance, if an insect hops a lot to keep away from predators, then the femur is greatly enlarged, as is the case with grasshoppers. Thus, legs range in length and shape because they may be used for walking, leaping, digging, grasping, feeling, swimming, conserving objects, constructing systems, and cleansing elements of the body. One crucial leg adaptation in larvae is prolegs. Prolegs, or false legs, are fleshy frame projections with rows of tiny hooks, helping the insect grasp to surfaces and plants. In addition, they provide additional support in locomotion.

• Wings:

 Venation, or arrangement of veins within the wings, is exclusive for each species of insect; for this reason, it serves as a means of identification. Many insect orders lead to “ptera,” which comes from the Greek phrase which means “wing.” 

For instance, the Hemiptera approach is “half-winged,” the Hymenoptera method is “membrane-winged,” and the Diptera manner is “two-winged.” maximum immature bugs do not have wings, however, some have wing pads that extend as the insect grows closer to maturity. One wing amendment of flies is the presence of halteres, which are small, knobbed systems that update the hind pair of wings and aid in stability.

• Antennae:

The antennae are an outstanding and one-of-a-kind characteristic of most bugs, and a pair is continually present on the adult’s head. Antennae are positioned between or in front of the eyes and are segmented structures that change greatly in shape and complexity. They may be frequently organs of odor but can serve different capabilities along with sensing humidity degrees, sound, flight airspeed, flavor, direction, and contact.

• Mouthparts:

The most notable and complex structural feature of bugs in the mouth. Much like insect legs, mouthparts range in shape and feature, primarily based on which and how an insect lives and what it feeds upon. Every form of mouth is made from several simple, commonplace structures, but a few may be significantly decreased whilst others are enlarged. Chewing mouthparts, which include mandibles and different components, work together to maintain/pinch, maneuver, chunk, and deliver chewed food to the mouth. An example of a chewinglapping mouthpart is the honeybee’s mouth, which is composed of mandibles and its extendable tongue. These components paint together to assist the bee chunk, mildew wax, suck up nectar, and regurgitate fluids to feed the young (brood), etc. Siphoning mouthparts is commonplace with butterflies and moths. No mandibles are gifts, handiest a protracted, bendy tube used to insert into flowers to extract nectar. Piercing-sucking mouthparts arise with genuine bugs, aphids, and mosquitoes. This kind of mouthpart is sharp at the tip and is inserted into plants or animals to withdraw vitamins.

In a few instances, insects of identical order will always have equal mouthparts for each lifestyle level, as with grasshoppers. Others will have one-of-a-kind mouthparts in extraordinary life degrees. As an example, the monarch caterpillar has chewing mouthparts, but the adult monarch butterfly has to siphon mouthparts. Some adult bugs have vestigial mouthparts and do no longer feed in any respect.

References:

https://entomology.osu.edu/about-us/what-entomology#:~:text=Entomology%20is%20the%20study%20of,ecosystems%2C%20and%20their%20effective%20management.

https://www.universityaspire.com/scope-of-entomology-in-pakistan/#:~:text=Entomology%20is%20the%20branch%20of,science%2C%20criminology%2C%20and%20forensics.

https://extension.unl.edu/statewide/douglas-sarpy/pdfs/ce/resources/ce-ec1588-introduction-to-entomology.pdf