35. Mango Anthracnose and Its Impacts

 Mango 

Introduction:

    Mango, a stone fruit that is safe to eat, is derived from the tropical tree Mangifera indica. It is believed to have originated in the region encompassing northwestern Myanmar, northeastern India, and Bangladesh. M. indica has been grown in South and Southeast Asia since ancient times, resulting in two types of modern mango cultivars: the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type". The majority of other species in the Mangifera genus that produce edible fruits are also referred to as "mangoes" and are found in the Malesian ecoregion.

    There are several hundred cultivars of mango worldwide, and the fruit varies in size, shape, sweetness, skin color, and flesh color, which can be pale yellow, gold, green, or orange, depending on the cultivar. Mango is the national fruit of India, Pakistan, and the Philippines, while the mango tree is the national tree of Bangladesh.

Mango Anthracnose

Causal Organism:

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Hosts:

    The fungus that causes anthracnose in mango can also infect several other crops, including avocado, capsicum, coffee, eggplant, papaya, tomato, and yam. Different strains of the fungus can infect various crops and weeds.

Symptoms:

• Anthracnose is a disease that affects various parts of the mango tree, including leaves, twigs, petioles, flower clusters (panicles), and fruits. 
• Symptoms of anthracnose on leaves appear as small, angular, brown to black spots that can expand and cause extensive dead areas. 
• During dry weather, the lesions may fall off the leaves. On panicles, the first signs of the disease are small black or dark-brown spots that can coalesce, enlarge, and kill the flowers before the fruits are produced, leading to a significant reduction in yield. 
• Petioles, twigs, and stems can also be affected, and they show the typical black, enlarging lesions found on fruits, leaves, and flowers. 
• Ripe fruits that are afflicted by anthracnose develop sunken, prominent, dark brown to black decay spots before or after harvesting. The fruits may fall from the trees prematurely.
• Anthracnose can cause extensive fruit rotting as the spots on the fruit coalesce and penetrate deep into it. 
• Infections in green fruits mostly remain latent and unnoticeable until ripening. Thus, fruits that seem healthy at harvest can quickly develop significant anthracnose symptoms when they ripen. 
• A second type of symptom on fruits is the "tear stain," where linear necrotic regions on the fruit, which may or may not be associated with superficial cracking of the epidermis, resulting in an "alligator skin" effect, and deep cracks in the epidermis that extend into the pulp.
• On stems and fruits, lesions can produce conspicuous pinkish-orange spore masses in wet conditions. 
• Anthracnose infections are favored by warm, humid weather conditions in the field. Post-harvest, warm and humid temperatures promote the development of anthracnose.

Disease Cycle:

      The pathogen responsible for anthracnose in mango is disseminated passively by splashing rain or irrigation water through its spores (conidia). These spores land on infection sites, such as leaves, panicles, or branch terminals, where they germinate and penetrate immature fruits and young tissues by ramifying through the tissues. In mature fruits, infections penetrate the cuticle but remain dormant until the onset of fruit ripening.

        Affected organs develop rapidly expanding, sunken, black lesions and symptomatic tissue produces sticky masses of conidia during moist conditions, especially rainy or humid weather. The fungus can undergo multiple disease cycles, multiplying during the season. It survives between seasons on infected and defoliated branch terminals and mature leaves.

Management

Cultural control:

    To reduce humidity and prevent the onset of anthracnose in mango trees, it is crucial to prune them and ensure that there is free airflow throughout the tree canopy. It is recommended to keep the trees below 4 meters in height to facilitate easy management and harvesting. Infected twigs should be removed and burned, and fallen leaves should be disposed of in the same manner.

Resistant Varieties:

    The Indo-Chinese and Philippine mango varieties are believed to possess some resistance to anthracnose, and their potential to resist the fungus should be evaluated in Pacific island nations. These varieties are known for their excellent flavor and low-fiber flesh.

Chemical control:

    To manage Glomerella leaf and flower blight, regular and timely use of fungicides is essential. Application of chemicals should commence when flowers first appear and continue at recommended intervals (such as 3 to 4 weeks) until the pre-harvest waiting period. In Australia, several fungicides, including mancozeb and copper, are registered for anthracnose control. Post-harvest treatment options for controlling fruit infections include dipping the fruits in fungicide (such as carbendazim) and hot water. Both treatments should last for 5 minutes at 52°C. When using carbendazim, it is important to use 3 liters of dip per kilogram of fruit.

Impacts:

1. Wet weather exacerbates the damage caused by the Stigmina fungus.
2. The fungus causes black spots on the leaves, which can expand to form large black areas.
3. In addition to the aesthetic damage, wet weather can cause early leaf fall due to the fungus.
4. The damage caused by Stigmina is primarily to the leaves of the plant and does not affect fruit or shoots.
5. Plant diseases have a significant impact on global food production and contribute to shortages of both food and fruit.
6. Ghana's tree and horticultural crops are particularly vulnerable to diseases, which have been well documented.
7. Mango production in Ghana is an important economic crop, but it is threatened by multiple diseases due to the crop's susceptibility to fungal pathogens.
8. Mango's high water-nutrient content makes it a perfect medium for fungal pathogen development, leading to a high susceptibility to diseases.
9. Anthracnose disease, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. & Sacc, is a major limitation to mango production, with reported yield losses of up to 30% in the Yilo Kobo District of Ghana.
10. The impact of anthracnose disease on mango production is not limited to Ghana, as it has been reported to cause yield losses of 39% in India and render 60% of harvested avocado fruits unmarketable in Kenya.
11. Finding effective ways to prevent and control plant diseases, including anthracnose disease, is critical for sustainable food production and economic development in affected regions.

References:

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24. Mango Production Technology

 Mango

Scientific Name:

Mangifira indica

Introduction:

    Mango is the second essential fruit crop in Pakistan. At present, it is grown in a place of ninety-three. Forty-two thousand hectares with manufacturing 915.7 thousand tonnes. The region below the mango crop has increased however the upward push in production is comparatively gradual. The primary mango-growing districts in the Punjab province are Multan, Bahawalpur, Muzzaffar garh and Rahim yar Khan. Inside the province of Sindh, its miles grew in Mir pur Khas, Hyderabad, and Thatta inside the province of NWFP it is grown in Peshawar and Mardan. The weather of Sindh gets warmer about one month in advance than the Punjab which has given the province the privilege to develop early sorts of mango. Sooner or later, a new trend of growing past due types in Punjab has obtained huge popularity which has prolonged the market duration and introduced the exportable surplus.

Importance:

• It also includes copper, folate, potassium, magnesium, and manganese the side of vitamins A, B5, B6, C, E, and k. Mangoes are also high in antioxidants and packed with immunity-boosting nutrients.
• In addition, the dietary benefits of mangoes encompass safety in opposition to macular degeneration and respiratory diseases.
• This delicious fruit is nutritionally advanced, and supplies of numerous vitamins and minerals. Pakistan produces 5.86 percent of global's mangoes being the third largest manufacturer. Its export is progressing ensuing in vast foreign exchange income. Mango export along with center East has additionally determined its manner to the United Kingdom and other European markets. It is believed that the call could upward push to as high as 50 percent given the right impetus and expanding the export to Germany, Japan China, and Hong Kong.

Climate and soil conditions:

The ecological conditions appropriate for mango cultivation are:

• Elevations range from 200 to 300 meters.
• suitable temperature variety is 15 to 40oC. Low temperatures are extremely dangerous. Frosts and warm winds purpose brilliant harm to the trees. Younger flowers need protection against frost and hot winds.
• Warm and humid weather is appropriate. In regions with heavy rainfall, the quality of fruit can be affected.
• Mango can be grown in a huge range of soils however well tired, deep, and fertile soils are most appropriate. Salt-affected soil is not top for its cultivation.

Propagation:

Propagation is finished by numerous means of grafting on neighborhood seedlings.

Suitable age of nursery plant for transplanting:                              1.5  to 2 years

Time for transplanting:                                                                      

In spring:              Feb/March

In Autumn:            Sept/Oct

Time to start bearing:                                                                    4-5 years

Time to complete bearing:                                                             6-7 years
Ordinary financial bearing lifestyles:                                           30-50 years
Time of flowering:                                                                          Feb/Mar

Main Varieties used in different regions of Pakistan:

Sindh:

    Sindhri, Gulabkhas, Collector, Neelum

Punjab:

    Langra, Anwar Ratol, Fajri kalan, Samer Bahisht

NWFP:

    Langra and Samer Bahisht

Baluchistan:

    Sindhri and Banganpalli

Production Technology of Mango:

        Annual Crop Water call for 500-750 mm

Irrigation intervals:

• younger flowers                                                                                  7 days
• Mature trees in winter                                                                         15-20 days
• Mature timber in the summer season                                                   8-10 days

1. Observe farm yard manure at the price of 10-30 kg in keeping with younger plants and eighty to one hundred kg in keeping with completely grown trees.
2. Practice 3-4 kg SSP, 2-3 kg Potassium Sulphate, and a couple of three kg Urea before flowering (Dec to Jan). 
3. Observe a further 2-3  kg of Urea after fruit placing in equal doses (Mar/Apr).

Pruning:

    Mango generally assumes a swish dome form shading the primary trunk. No pruning is practiced but, annually after fruit harvest diseased, dried, damaged branches and those touching the ground ought to be pruned off. To rejuvenate the orchard after every three-four years it's far really helpful that 15-20% of vintage wood should be eliminated.

Harvesting:

    Choosing must be done while the fruit is fully advanced and mature. An herbal drop of the fruit is the primary indication that the fruit is prepared for selection. One-of-a-kind types in extraordinary areas ripe at one-of-a-kind instances. In Sindh, mango sorts start ripening from may also to June. In Punjab, ripening starts evolved from June and keeps up until mid-August. In NWFP, the harvest is later which enables the extension of the duration that mangoes are available. Predicted yields range from forty to one hundred kg in line with the tree.

Pests of mango and their control:

1. Fruit Flies: Fruit flies are a major pest of mango trees and can cause significant damage to the fruit. These flies lay their eggs in the mango fruit, which can cause the fruit to rot and become unmarketable.

• Control: To control fruit flies, farmers can use integrated pest management techniques such as the use of insecticide-treated baits, cover sprays, and releasing predators of the flies such as wasps. 

2. Powdery Mildew: Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that can cause yellowing and stunted growth of the leaves and defoliation of the mango tree.

• Control: To control powdery mildew, farmers can use fungicides and adopt cultural practices such as proper spacing between trees to increase air circulation.

3. Mango Shoot Borer: A mango shoot borer is a pest that attacks the shoots and young leaves of the mango tree, causing wilting and stunted growth.

• Control: To control mango shoot borer, farmers can use insecticides and adopt cultural practices such as pruning the infected shoots and keeping the tree clean of dead leaves and debris.

4. Mango Hopper: Mango hopper is a sap-sucking insect that can cause yellowing and wilting of leaves, as well as stunted growth of the tree.

• Control: To control mango hoppers, farmers can use insecticides and adopt cultural practices such as removing any weed growth around the tree.

Diseases of Mango and their control:

1. Mango anthracnose: This is a fungal disease that causes brown, sunken lesions on the fruit and leaves, leading to fruit rot and unmarketability.

• Control: To control mango anthracnose in Pakistan, farmers can use fungicides such as carbendazim, mancozeb, and copper-based fungicides, adopt proper orchard hygiene practices to reduce the spread of the disease, and avoid planting mango trees in areas with a history of the disease. 

2. Mango powdery mildew: This is a fungal disease that causes white powdery growth on the leaves and fruit, leading to leaf yellowing and defoliation.

• Control: To control mango powdery mildew in Pakistan, farmers can use fungicides such as wettable sulfur and iodine, adopt cultural practices such as proper spacing between trees to increase air circulation, and maintain the proper balance of nutrients in the soil. 

3. Mango scab: This is a fungal disease that causes circular, scabby lesions on the fruit, leaves, and twigs.

• Control: To control mango scabs in Pakistan, farmers can use fungicides such as benomyl and propiconazole, adopt proper orchard hygiene practices such as removing and disposing of infected leaves and fruit, and maintain the proper balance of nutrients in the soil.

4. Mango dieback: This is a bacterial disease that causes sudden wilting and death of mango branches.

• Control: To control mango dieback in Pakistan, farmers can use bactericides such as copper oxychloride and streptomycin, and adopt cultural practices such as pruning infected branches, avoiding over-fertilization, and maintaining soil moisture levels.

References:

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