40. Production Technology of Stevia

Stevia

 Introduction:

    Stevia is a plant species native to South America, particularly Paraguay and Brazil. It is a member of the sunflower family and has been used for centuries by the Guarani people of Paraguay as a natural sweetener for their tea and medicinal preparations.

    Stevia's sweet taste comes from a group of compounds called steviol glycosides, which are present in plant leaves. These compounds are 200-300 times sweeter than table sugar but have no calories or effect on blood sugar levels, making stevia an attractive alternative to artificial sweeteners.

    In the 20th century, stevia gained popularity as a sweetener in Japan, where it was approved for use in food and beverages in the 1970s. Since then, it has been approved as a sweetener in many countries around the world, including the United States and the European Union.

    Stevia is now commonly used as a sweetener in a variety of products, including soft drinks, baked goods, and other processed foods. It is also available in a granulated form for home use as a sugar substitute in cooking and baking.

Botanical Characteristics:

    Stevia, scientifically known as Stevia rebaudiana, is a perennial plant that can reach a height of 60-100 cm. The leaves of the plant grow opposite to each other and are sessile, ranging in size from 2 cm to 10 cm. Each plant can have up to 40-45 leaves.

    Stevia is typically grown in semi-humid subtropical regions with temperatures ranging from 20-30 degrees Celsius. It requires well-fertile soil that is rich in organic matter and has a pH level between 6.5-7.5. Sandy loam soil is preferred for cultivation, while soils with high salt or salinity are not suitable for growing stevia.

Production Technology

Land Preparation:

    Before planting stevia, it is crucial to properly prepare the field. This involves plowing the land 2-3 times to bring the soil to a fine tilth. During the plowing process, trichoderma should be mixed thoroughly with the soil. In the final plowing, farmyard manure (FYM) should be incorporated into the soil to provide additional nutrients.

Soil Type and climate:

    Stevia can be grown in a variety of soils, although it performs best in sandy loam to loamy soil with good drainage and high organic content. It is important to avoid cultivating stevia in saline soils, as these can be harmful to the plant's growth and yield. The ideal pH range for stevia cultivation is between 6 and 8.

Nursery Establishment:

    To start stevia cultivation, it is recommended to sow the seeds indoors in containers for 6-8 weeks. After sowing, it is important to cover the beds with peat moss and provide adequate watering to retain moisture in the soil.

    For bushier growth, it is recommended to pinch the tips of the plant before transplanting. This encourages the growth of lateral shoots and results in a fuller plant.

    When the seedlings are ready for transplantation, typically after 6-8 weeks, they should be transplanted onto raised beds that are 60cm wide and 15cm in height. It is important to water the seedling beds 24 hours before transplanting to ensure that the seedlings can be easily uprooted and are turgid at the time of transplantation.

Sowing

Time of sowing:

    The ideal time for sowing stevia is between February and March. This period provides optimal conditions for seed germination and early growth of the plant. It

Spacing:

    When transplanting stevia seedlings, they should be spaced approximately 18 inches apart to provide enough room for the plants to grow and spread out. The row spacing should be 20-24 inches apart, allowing for adequate airflow and room for maintenance between the rows.

Seed Rate:

    When transplanting stevia seedlings into the main fields, it is recommended to use a plant density of approximately 30,000 seedlings per acre. 

Raised Bed Preparation:

    Forming raised beds is considered the most effective and cost-efficient method for growing stevia. The recommended height for the raised bed is 15cm or half a foot, with a width of 15cm or half a foot as well. To ensure adequate spacing between the plants, a distance of 15cm is suggested between each plant, with a distance of 30cm or one foot between each row.

    By utilizing raised beds and following the recommended spacing, it is possible to establish approximately 50,000 stevia plants within one acre of land. 

Fertilizer:

    To achieve optimal production of stevia, it is recommended to apply a specific amount of fertilizers to the soil. Generally, two bags of urea, one bag of DAP, and one bag of potassium sulfate should be applied per acre of land.

Irrigation:

    Irrigation for stevia cultivation is typically performed using either sprinkler systems or drip irrigation. As the plant does not require excessive water, light irrigation is recommended at regular intervals. During the summer months, it is recommended to irrigate at intervals of every 8 days to prevent over-watering. It is important to avoid allowing water to stagnate in the field, as this can harm the stevia crop.

Weed control:

To control weeds in the field, hand weeding is typically performed. The first weeding is usually carried out approximately one month after planting, with subsequent weeding conducted every two weeks thereafter. Intercultural operations are also performed to remove weeds since the crop is grown on raised beds, which makes it easy for labor to access and maintain. By carefully managing weed growth, growers can help ensure that their stevia plants have the necessary resources to grow and produce a high-quality yield.

Plant Protection Measures

Pests and Their control:

    Aphids are soft-bodied sucking insects that are nearly transparent. When present in large numbers, they can cause leaves to yellow and die prematurely.

Control:

    To manage aphids, growers can use chrysoperla predators at a rate of 4-6 thousand per acre or use 50 grams of neem concentrate per liter. These methods are effective in reducing the population of aphids and preventing damage to stevia plants. 

Disease and their control:

    Stevia is vulnerable to root rot disease, which is caused by a fungus that is often present in the soil. The disease first appears as yellowing of the lower leaves, which then spreads to the upper parts of the plant and causes them to dry up. Root rot is most common in the early stages of growth and can cause the roots of affected plants to become weak and easily break.

Control:

    To control root rot disease, growers can mix 400 grams of Topsin-M with 100 liters of water and spray it around the roots of the affected plants. This method is effective in managing the spread of the fungus and helping to prevent further damage to the crop.

Harvesting:

    Harvesting of Stevia can be done when the plant attains a height of 40-60 cm. Flowering is induced by shorter days, which can impact the quality and quantity of the stevioside content.

Yield:

    Typically, three to four harvests are conducted annually, resulting in an average yield of 3-3.5 tons of dry green leaves per hectare. Stevia plants can be grown for up to five years after the initial planting, providing a sustainable source of leaves for production.

Drying and Threshing

    The drying time for Stevia depends on factors such as weather conditions and loading density, typically ranging from 24 to 48 hours at a temperature of 40°C to 50°C. Once the leaves are dried, a specialized thresher/separator is required to remove the dry leaves from the stems.:

References:

1

2

3

4

5

39. Agricultural Biotechnology and Its Pros and Cons

 Agricultural Biotechnology

Definition:

    Agricultural biotechnology involves the application of cutting-edge biological techniques, such as genetic manipulation, to alter agricultural practices and products.

Introduction:

    There are advocates and critics of utilizing biotechnology in agriculture. Advocates assert that biotechnology can enhance agricultural productivity by increasing crop yields and bolstering crops' immunity against pests and diseases. Additionally, they maintain that biotechnology has the potential to conserve resources by minimizing the requirement for pesticides and herbicides. On the other hand, detractors express concerns about the potential hazards associated with genetically modified organisms (GMOs), such as unanticipated ecological consequences and the risk of GMOs cross-pollinating with non-genetically modified crops.

    Agricultural biotechnology is a widely used method to propagate desirable traits and enhance productivity. This is accomplished through selective breeding, which involves manipulating the organism's genetic makeup. By utilizing biotechnology, crops, and animals can experience improved growth, decreased reliance on pesticides, and heightened nutritional quality. However, it is important to acknowledge that agricultural biotechnology may also have negative impacts on human health and the environment.

Pros of Agricultural biotechnology 

• Biotechnological Approaches to Enhance Nutritional Quality:

    Nutrient levels, including vitamins, are enhanced as a result of biotechnological approaches, resulting in improved dietary quality of food products. One example is golden rice, which has been genetically modified to contain three genes that enable humans to produce vitamin A. Similarly, the Banana 21 project has successfully enhanced the nutritional value of bananas by incorporating iron and vitamin A.

• Biotechnological Techniques for Enhancing Good Traits in Crops and Livestock:

    Agricultural biotechnology enables the propagation of desirable traits in plants and animals. This has been achieved through genetic modifications that result in animals with enhanced traits, such as rapid growth and heightened disease resistance. Additionally, biotechnology has been used to clone the growth hormone gene in cattle, resulting in increased milk production in dairy cows. Certain environmental conditions, such as low temperatures and high atmospheric pressure, can render some regions unsuitable for crop cultivation.

• Biotechnological Approaches for Reducing Pesticide Use:

    Agricultural biotechnology offers a solution for minimizing the use of pesticides by engineering crops with heightened resistance to pests and diseases. This increased resistance can lead to improved growth and higher food production. By reducing the need for excessive chemical application, the cost of production can be lowered and yields increased. Furthermore, minimizing chemical use in agriculture can reduce water and soil pollution, as chemical usage is one of the primary contributors to environmental contamination.

Cons of Agricultural biotechnology

• Antibiotic Resistance:

    In agricultural biotechnology, antibiotic resistance genes are commonly utilized as markers to identify the presence of newly introduced desirable traits in plants. While this technique has proven effective in verifying successful gene transfer, there is a potential risk associated with the use of these genes. Specifically, there is concern that the utilization of antibiotic-resistance genes may lead to the emergence of new antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can be difficult to treat using conventional antibiotics.

• Health Risks and Concerns Associated with Agricultural Biotechnology:

    Agricultural biotechnology is a relatively new field, and the potential effects of its implementation on both the environment and human health remain uncertain. Opinions on this matter are divided, as experts are still investigating the potential health effects of genetically modified products on human beings. Genetic engineering, which is a common practice in agricultural biotechnology, involves the use of antibiotic-resistant genes as markers, which may have negative implications for health. Inserting these genes into a plant's genome could reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics and potentially transfer the resistance gene to pathogens, thus increasing their resistance to antibiotics.

• Negative Effects of Agricultural Biotechnology on the Environment:

    The effects of agricultural biotechnology on the environment are not yet well understood due to the relatively recent development of the field. However, research has indicated that the use of biotechnology in agriculture may lead to the proliferation of herbicide-resistant weeds, which can have negative consequences for the ecosystem. Genetic engineering involves the transfer of specific genes between organisms, which can result in the unintentional transfer of unwanted genes into weeds and pests, making them more difficult to eradicate. Furthermore, the transfer of genes that make microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses more virulent may result in the emergence of new, potentially harmful strains. In addition, genetically engineered plants may produce new proteins that could be toxic to wildlife, further impacting the environment.

References:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Food Safety Issues in Modern Agriculture

Modern Agriculture:

    Modern agriculture refers to the advanced farming practices and technologies that have been developed and adopted over the past century to increase agricultural productivity and efficiency. This includes the use of advanced machinery, genetically modified crops, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and precision agriculture techniques.

    One of the key features of modern agriculture is its focus on maximizing yields and profits through the use of technology and scientific knowledge. Farmers and agricultural companies use a variety of techniques and tools to monitor and manage crop growth, including sensors, drones, and satellite imaging. They also rely on genetic engineering and other biotechnology to develop crops that are more resistant to pests and diseases, have higher nutritional value, and can be grown in a wider range of environments.

    Overall, modern agriculture represents a significant transformation in the way we produce and consume food, and it will continue to shape our relationship with the natural world in the years to come. 

Food Safety Issues in Modern Agriculture:

    Modern agriculture has made great strides in increasing productivity and efficiency in food production, but it has also given rise to a number of food safety issues. From the use of pesticides and fertilizers to the risks of contamination during processing and transportation, there are a variety of potential hazards that can compromise the safety of our food supply. In this essay, we will explore some of the key food safety issues in modern agriculture and examine some of the steps that can be taken to mitigate these risks.

Use of Pesticides and Fertilizers:

    One of the most significant food safety issues in modern agriculture is the use of pesticides and fertilizers. These chemicals are essential to modern farming practices, as they help to control pests and increase crop yields, but they can also pose a risk to human health and the environment. Pesticides and fertilizers can contaminate soil and water, leading to health risks for farmers and nearby communities, as well as potential food safety risks if crops are contaminated. To mitigate these risks, it is important to follow strict regulations and best practices for the use of pesticides and fertilizers, as well as to develop new, more sustainable approaches to pest and weed management.

Risk of Contamination during Processing and Transportation:

    Another key food safety issue in modern agriculture is the risk of contamination during processing and transportation. As food products move through the supply chain, there are many opportunities for contamination to occur, from the use of contaminated water to improper handling and storage. This can lead to foodborne illness outbreaks and recalls, as well as economic losses for farmers and food companies. To address these risks, it is important to implement robust food safety management systems and supply chain traceability, as well as to promote education and awareness among farmers, processors, and consumers.

Animal agriculture:

    Animal agriculture is also a significant contributor to food safety issues, particularly with regard to the use of antibiotics and growth hormones in livestock. Antibiotics are commonly used to promote growth and prevent disease in livestock, but this practice can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can pose a significant risk to human health. Similarly, the use of growth hormones in livestock can lead to concerns about the safety of meat and dairy products, as well as potential health risks for humans who consume these products. To address these risks, it is important to promote the responsible use of antibiotics and growth hormones, as well as to develop new, more sustainable approaches to animal agriculture.

Sustainability and the Environmental Impact of Agriculture:

    Finally, food safety issues in modern agriculture are closely linked to broader concerns about sustainability and the environmental impact of agriculture. As the global population grows and the demand for food increases, it is important to develop more sustainable approaches to agriculture that balance the needs of food production with environmental protection and conservation. This might include the use of regenerative agriculture practices, such as cover cropping and crop rotation, as well as the promotion of sustainable livestock management practices, such as rotational grazing and manure management.

Conclusion:

    To summarize, food safety is an urgent concern in modern agriculture, and it is vital to implement measures to prevent contamination and minimize the possibility of food-related illnesses. This can be achieved by increasing regulations, embracing modern technologies, educating and training workers, and improving traceability. It is imperative that all stakeholders, including consumers, policymakers, agriculture professionals, and food safety experts collaborate to ensure the safety and security of our food supply.

References:

1

2

3

4

5

6

38. زراعت کی تاریخ

 زراعت کی تاریخ:

مصر میں 7000 ق میں زراعت پہلی بار اختیار کی گئی اور بھارتی ذیلی قارہ میں مہرگڑھ ، بلوچستان میں گندم اور جو کا کاشت کیا گیا تھا۔ 6000 ق میں، نیل کے کناروں پر قدیم زراعت شروع ہوگئی جہاں چاول کے ساتھ گندم ایک اہم فصل تصور کیا جاتا تھا۔ چین اور انڈونیشیا میں ، ٹارو ، مونگ اور ازوکی جیسی فصلیں تیار کی جاتیں تھیں۔ البتہ آبی نظم و بندی کے غلط استعمال کی وجہ سے، ان فصلوں کا کاشت صرف ندیوں اور کینالوں کے کناروں کے قریب کیا جاتا تھا۔ ان فصلوں کو پسند کیا جاتا تھا کیونکہ ان میں کاربوہائیڈریٹس اور ضروری پروٹین کی بڑی مقدار شامل ہوتی ہے۔ ان نئی کاشتکاری اور مچھلی پکڑنے کے طریقوں کے اختیار سے انسانی تہذیب میں اضافہ ہوا۔

    تاریخی ثبوت کے مطابق، زراعت کے پھیلاؤ کو بھی ہوا سہارا خطے سے لوگوں کے ماؤوجودہ کمیونٹیوں کی مہاجرت سے مدد ملی تھی، تقریباً 6500 سال پہلے۔ اس وقت تک، سمیریونز نے پہلے ہی بڑے پیمانے پر زمین کی کاشت، منو کراپنگ، تنظیم شدہ آبپاشی، اور متخصص کامگر قوتوں کے استعمال جیسی بنیادی زراعتی تکنیکوں کا ترقی دیا تھا۔ یہ تکنیکیں آج شاہراہ شط العرب کے نام سے جانی جاتی ہیں جو خلیج فارس ڈیلٹا سے ٹگرس اور یوفریٹیس دریاؤں کے ملانے کی جگہ تک پھیلتی ہے۔ پہلے زمانے میں، فصلوں کی کاشت عموماً شخصی استعمال کے لئے کی جاتی تھی، لیکن وقت کے ساتھ ساتھ، بہت سے ممالک تجارتی مقاصد کے لئے فصلوں کی کاشت شروع کردی اور تبادلہ کے لئے بارٹر سسٹم کا استعمال کرنے لگے۔

زراعت پودوں اور جانوروں کی کاشت کرنے کی عمل ہے جس سے غذائی اشیاء، جانوروں کا خوراک، ریشے، ایندھن اور مزید مختلف مہیا کرنے کے لئے اشیاء بنائی جاتی ہیں۔

زراعت کے ترقی کے پہلے لوگ عموماً شکاری اور جمع کرنے والے تھے، جو اپنی زندگی کے لئے قدرتی وسائل پر منحصر تھے۔ لیکن جب انسانوں کو مٹی کی حفاظت اور کاشت کے اہمیت سمجھ آئی، تب وہ قراردادی جماعتیں بنانے اور زراعت کو زندگی کا ایک طریقہ بنانے کے قابل بنے۔ اس سے قبائل اور کلان بننے لگے جو ایک جگہ میں رہ سکتے تھے اور آئندہ نسلوں کو زراعت کے علم کو ایک نسل سے دوسرے نسل کے درمیان منتقل کرسکتے تھے۔ زراعت کے اضافے کے ساتھ شہریں پیدا ہونا شروع ہوگئیں، اور ان کے درمیان تجارتی تعلقات مضبوط ہونے شروع ہوگئے۔ اس کے نتیجے میں انسانی معاشرے کے بناوٹ شروع ہوگئی، اور افراد اور گروہوں کے درمیان تعلقات پیچیدہ تر ہوگئے۔

کاشتکاروں نے دوران وسطی عصر، شمالی افریقہ اور قریب الشرق میں آبادی کے اصولوں پر بنیادوں پر بنے آبپاشی نظاموں کے ساتھ کھلی۔ ان میں ہائیڈرولک اور ہائیڈروسٹیٹک اصولوں پر مبنی آبپاشی نظاموں، پانی کی چکیوں یا نوریوں جیسی مشینوں کا استعمال اور پانی کی اونچائی کو بڑھانے والی مشینوں، بندوبستوں اور جنگلی علاقوں کا کشت پر زمین کا استعمال شامل ہے۔ اس دوران چینیوں کی مولڈبورڈ پلاؤ کی تشکیل ان کا اہم ترین کردار تھا۔

سن 1492 کے بعد، کروپس اور مویشی کا عالمی تبادلہ ہوا جس نے تمباکو، آلو، اور کافی جیسی نئی کروپ کی درآمد کی۔ یہ درآمد آبادی کی بڑھتی کی وجہ بنی۔ دو سو بیسویں صدی کی ابتدائی دہائی میں، منتخب نسلوں اور کشتکاروں کی مستقبل کے لئے درست انتخاب کی وجہ سے کروپس کی پیداوار تیزی سے بڑھ گئی۔ اس دوران، میکانیزڈ زراعت کا تعلق رکھتا ہوا ٹریکٹر کا ایجاد ہوا۔ اس ایجاد نے زراعت میں طلبہ کی مقدار کم کرنے میں مدد کی۔ بیسویں صدی کی ابتدائی دہائی میں، بہت سارے مزارع امریکہ، جرمنی، ارجنٹینا، اور دیگر ممالک میں قائم

برٹش زراعتی انقلاب:

بارہویں صدی سے آٹھارویں صدی تک، برطانیہ نے زراعتی پیداوار میں تیزی سے اضافہ کا سامنا کیا جس کو برٹش زراعتی انقلاب کہا جاتا ہے. یہ "انقلاب" کسی بھی زراعتی طریقے کی مختلف بہتریوں سے مشتمل تھا جو کہ کم اور زیادہ بالترتیب کئے جاتے تھے. کسانوں نے فصل کی ترتیب کے نئے طریقوں کو ترقی دی، جنمادے یا جنگلی زمین کا کاشت کرنا شروع کیا، اور شلجم جیسی نئی فصلیں بوائیں۔

اس میدان میں ایجادات:

خوراک کی پیداوار اور تقسیم میں ایجادات کا باعث آبادی کی مضافت کی خوراکی مانگوں کو پورا کرنے کے لئے اہم کردار ادا کرتے ہیں۔ مکسیکو، امریکہ کے شہریار ٹٹو، اور کسافا جیسے پودے جو امریکہ میں پائے جاتے تھے، دنیا بھر میں پھیل گئے اور ان کے اعلیٰ غذائی اجزاء نے کم تغذیہ پذیری کو روکا اور آبادی کی مضافت کی مدد کی۔ 18ویں صدی میں، نقل و حمل کے میدان میں اقدامات، جن میں بڑھتے ہوئے ریلوے، شپنگ کینال، اور نئی اناج کی ذخیرہ اور نقل و حمل مشینری شامل تھیں، نے امریکہ کو گندم اور مکئی کا اہم بیرونی فروخت کرنے والا بنا دیا، جس نے اروپا میں خوراک کی کمی کے دوران خوراک کی مانگ کو پورا کرنے میں مدد کی۔ ٹھنڈے نقل و حمل کے تیاری کے ترقیات نے بھی کسانوں کو ناقابل تحمل خوراک کی بھیجیاں بڑی فاصلوں تک بھیجنے کی اجازت دی، جس نے خوراک کی زیادہ بہترین اور وسیع پھیلاؤ کی اجازت دی۔

3. Branches of Agriculture

 Branches of Agriculture

    Agriculture is a very vast field but here we discussed 19 major branches of agriculture that are used often. These are discussed below:

1. Agronomy
2. Horticulture
3. Plant Pathology
4. Plant breeding and genetics 
5. Entomology
6. Seed science
7. Crop physiology
8. Plant protection
9. Soil sciences 
10. Agriculture biotechnology
11. Agriculture Engineering
12. Agriculture Economics 
13. Forestry
14. Food science and technology
15. Land and water management
16. Agricultural Microbiology
17. Environmental Sciences 
18. Animal husbandry
19. Agricultural chemistry

 

 

Briefly, a discussion of each field is given below:

1. Agronomy: 

    The cultivation of crops for food, fiber, forage, and sugar production falls under the purview of this agricultural branch. Its main goal is to improve agricultural productivity and advance cropping methods, making it a crucial and fundamental aspect of agriculture. This field encompasses a diverse range of agricultural practices, which includes but is not limited to permaculture, aquaponics, and polyhouse farming.

Agronomy is further divided into 2 branches:

• Weed science:

    This discipline focuses on the growth and management of vegetation in diverse settings, such as agricultural areas, natural zones, and urban and critical regions.

• Organic farming:

   Organic farming is a technique for cultivating plants and raising animals in a natural and sustainable way. This practice prioritizes the use of biological materials, promotes soil fertility and ecological stability, minimizes waste, and reduces environmental pollution. Additionally, organic farming encompasses the study of microgreens, among other areas.

2. Horticulture:

    This agricultural branch pertains to the cultivation of plants that have direct use to humans, such as for food, medicine, and aesthetic purposes.

This branch also has the following subbranches:

• Pomology:

    The cultivation of fruits is the focus of pomology.

• Olericulture:

   while the cultivation of vegetables is known as olericulture. 

• Floriculture:

    Floriculture, on the other hand, pertains to the cultivation of roses and other ornamental plants. 

• Arboriculture:

  Horticulture is a branch of agriculture that deals with the selection, planting, care, and removal of trees, shrubs, and other perennial woody plants.

• Landscaping:

    Deals with the production, presentation, and care of landscapes and other flowers and plants. 

• Viticulture:

    The cultivation and retailing of grapes are known as viticulture. 

3. Plant Pathology:

  This agricultural branch focuses on the causes of diseases and instabilities in plants, as well as methods for treating plant diseases. It involves an in-depth examination of how plant pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms, attack plants and the measures that can be taken to control their spread.

4. Plant Breeding and Genetics:

    This agricultural field involves the application of scientific and artistic techniques to modify the genetic structure and traits of plants, with the aim of achieving desired characteristics. By utilizing these techniques, it is possible to develop a wide range of crop varieties with improved resistance to pests and diseases, resulting in increased agricultural productivity.

5. Entomology:

  This field of agriculture pertains to the study of insects and other pests that significantly impact agricultural practices. It involves a detailed examination of the biological characteristics, behavior, and ecological interactions of various pests, as well as the measures that can be taken to manage their populations and mitigate their harmful effects on crops.

Further discussion of entomology is given below: 

• Insect Ecology:

    This area of agriculture focuses on exploring the relationship between insects and their surrounding environment. It involves in-depth research and analysis of various ecosystems to understand the existence, behavior, and ecological interactions of insects in their natural habitats. 

• Insect Morphology:

   This agricultural branch is concerned with the study of the external body parts of insects and their functions. It focuses on the anatomy and morphology of insects, particularly the structure and function of their outer body parts.

• Insect physiology: 

   This field of agriculture focuses on the study of the different physiological functions and behavioral systems of insects. It involves an in-depth analysis of the diverse behaviors exhibited by insects in their natural environment and how these behaviors are related to their physiological processes.

• Insect Toxicology: 

    This agricultural field pertains to the study of the effects of insecticides and other chemicals on the physiological functions of insects. It involves an in-depth examination of how these chemicals interact with the biological systems of insects, and the impact that these interactions have on their behavior and health.

• Insect Taxonomy: 

    Insect taxonomy is a practice of insect naming. 

• Biological Control Entomology: 

   This agricultural practice involves the use of living insects to control or eliminate populations of harmful insects. It is a highly effective technique with significant economic benefits.

• Forest Entomology: 

    This agricultural field pertains to the study of the effects of insects on forests and forest products, as well as the development of solutions to protect forest trees from significant damage. It involves an in-depth examination of the ecological interactions between insects and forest ecosystems and the impact that these interactions have on forest health and productivity.

• Forensic Entomology: 

    This branch of agriculture involves the study of insects for legal purposes, with a focus on the use of insects to determine the time and location of human death. It involves an in-depth examination of the ecological interactions between insects and decomposing human remains, and how this can be used to provide critical information for forensic investigations.

6. Seed science: 

    This agricultural branch is concerned with the study of the structure of seeds and their growth habitats, starting from fertilization, embryonic development, and subsequent growth into a mature plant. It is closely related to the fields of biotechnology and botany and involves an in-depth examination of the genetic and physiological mechanisms that regulate seed development and growth.

7. Crop Physiology: 

   This agricultural field pertains to the study of the functions and responses of plants to various environmental conditions, including factors such as temperature, water availability, nutrient levels, and atmospheric composition. It involves an in-depth examination of the physiological and biochemical mechanisms that regulate plant growth and development in different environmental contexts.

 

8. Plant Protection: 

      Plant protection refers to the various methods and techniques used to protect plants from pests, diseases, and other forms of damage, and to ensure their optimal growth and productivity. It includes a range of practices, such as the use of pesticides, biological controls, and cultural and mechanical techniques, as well as the development of disease-resistant plant varieties and the implementation of good agricultural practices to prevent plant stress and maintain plant health.

9. Soil sciences: 

    Soil science is a field of study that focuses on the properties, composition, and characteristics of soil, as well as the biological, physical, and chemical processes that occur within it. It involves an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on knowledge from fields such as geology, chemistry, biology, and physics to understand the formation, structure, and function of soils. Soil scientists examine the physical and chemical properties of soils, as well as their interactions with the atmosphere, water, and plants, and use this knowledge to develop sustainable practices for managing soil resources and maintaining soil health.

Sub-Branches of soil sciences are:

• Soil Biology:

    This branch of study concerns the organisms that inhabit the earth, their biology, functions, and activities. It includes a wide range of living organisms, such as nematodes, insects, and other types of fauna and flora. The focus of this field is to understand the relationships and interactions between organisms and their environment, including their roles in various ecosystems, their behaviors, and the impact of human activities on their populations.

• Soil Mineralogy: 

  This branch of study focuses on the various types of primary and secondary minerals found in soil and their contribution to the physical and chemical structure of the soil. It also includes the study of soil fertility and the various biological processes that occur within the soil, including nutrient cycling, microbial interactions, and the impact of human activities on soil health. 

• Soil Pedology: 

    Soil formation is the result of a complex process that involves the weathering of rocks and minerals, as well as various biological, chemical, and physical factors that influence the formation of soil. 

10. Agriculture biotechnology: 

  This branch of science involves the use of advanced scientific techniques and tools, such as genetic engineering, molecular markers, vaccines, and tissue culture, to manipulate the genetic material of living organisms for the purpose of improving or developing new organisms, such as crops and livestock.

11. Agriculture engineering: 

    It works with agriculture machinery for preparation, sowing, harvesting, and post-harvesting operations counting water and soil protection technologies and bioenergy.

This branch is further divided into 3 subs. branches which are given below: 

• Agricultural mechanization
• Farm power and machinery
• Farm structure

12. Agriculture economics:

    An applied economic field that studies human behavior concerning the relationship between food and fiber production and distribution.

13. Forestry:

    It is engaged in the extensive cultivation/farming of perennial plants for the supply of rubber, timber, etc. as well as industrial raw materials.

It has the following 6 branches: 

• Agroforestry
• Rangeland management
• Wildlife management
• Analog forestry
• Forest gardening
• Forest farming

14. Food science and technology:

    It uses a variety of approaches to study the composition of food, processing, packaging, and selection of existing food products.

Branches: 

• Food and nutrition

15. Land and water management:

    It is the process of management and expansion of land resources. Resources are mainly used for organic farming, water management, reforestation, and ecotourism projects.

Branches:

• Soil and water conservation
• Irrigation and drainage

16. Agriculture microbiology:

    This branch of microbiology deals with the study of microorganisms that are responsible for causing diseases in plants and animals. It also involves the study of soil microbiology, particularly the role of microorganisms in restoring soil fertility through processes such as microbial decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling in the soil.

17. Environmental Sciences:

    The field mixes biological, physical, and informational science in the study of the environment and solving ecological problems.

Branches: 

• Energy and environment
• Agro meteorology

18. Animal Husbandry:

    Branch of agriculture engaged in the agriculture exercise of breeding and rearing livestock to provide people with food, energy (drafts), and crop manure.

Branches: 

• Dairy farming
• Sericulture
• Fishery
• Mariculture
• Nematology
• Apiculture
• Poultry
• Nomadic pastoralism

19. Agriculture Chemistry:

    This branch of agriculture deals with the chemistry involved in agriculture, including organic and biochemistry, food processing, and the production of desired foods and beverages. It also involves the use of chemistry in environmental restoration.

References:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

 13

14

Wheat Production Technology in Pakistan

 Production Technology of Wheat in Pakistan

    Wheat is widely grown in various regions of Pakistan, with the typical planting time following cotton, rice, and sugarcane in irrigated areas. In both Pakistan and India, wheat yields tend to be higher in irrigated regions than in rainfed areas. To increase wheat production by up to 25%, farmers often employ crop rotation techniques.

    Compared to other cereal crops, wheat typically has a higher protein content. By utilizing a balanced approach to fertilizer use, we can effectively manage wheat production and ensure high-quality yields.

Growth stages of wheat:

    The wheat plant goes through several distinct stages of growth, including:

1. Pre-emergence stage
2. Emergence stage
3. Vegetative stage
4. Root growth stage
5. Tillering stage
6. Jointing stage
7. Reproductive stage
8. Maturity stage

    Each of these stages is critical to the plant's growth and development, from the initial germination of the seed to the maturation of the wheat grain. By understanding these stages and managing the crop accordingly, farmers can help ensure healthy growth and maximize yields.

1.  Pre-emerging stage:

    The germination of seeds gives rise to seminal roots and coleoptiles.

2. Emergence stage:

    When wheat seeds begin to germinate, the coleoptile emerges from the soil and becomes visible above the surface.

3. Vegetative stage:

As young wheat plants continue to grow, they establish a more extensive root system that allows them to absorb water and nutrients more efficiently from the soil.

5. Tillering stage:

    The tillering stage is a critical growth phase for wheat plants. During this stage, the plant begins to produce additional stems from the base of the main shoot. These additional stems, known as tillers, grow upward and develop their own leaves, which increases the overall leaf area of the plant.

    Tillering typically begins 2-3 weeks after emergence and continues for several weeks, with the number of tillers increasing as the plant develops. The extent of tillering can be influenced by several factors, including temperature, moisture, and soil fertility. With adequate moisture and nutrients, the plant can produce a greater number of tillers, which can ultimately lead to a higher grain yield.

6. Jointing stage:

    The jointing stage is an important growth phase in the development of wheat plants. It typically occurs around 6-7 weeks after emergence, depending on environmental conditions. During this stage, the stem of the wheat plant begins to elongate rapidly, and the first node appears at the base of the flag leaf.

7. Reproductive stage:

    At this stage, spikes become emerging from the leaf sheath.

8. Maturity stage:

    The maturity stage is the final growth phase in the development of the wheat plant. During this stage, the wheat plant has completed its reproductive phase, and the grain has reached its maximum size and weight. The plant's leaves and stems begin to turn yellow and die back, and the grain begins to dry and harden.

Wheat varieties growing in Irrigated Areas:

    There are several wheat varieties that are commonly grown in irrigated areas of Pakistan, including:

    Seher, Punjab-96, Kiran-95, NARC-2009, Inqilab-91

Verities of Rain-fed areas:

• The following are examples of wheat varieties commonly grown in Pakistan:
• Pakistan 2013, NARC 2009, Chakwal 50

In KPK Irrigated areas:

• Hashim 2008, Pirsabak 2008, NARC11, Pirsabak 2004

In KPK Rain-fed areas:

• Dharabi, Tatara, NIFA, Lalma 2013, Shahkar 2013

Preparation of soil before sowing:

• Use disease-resistant wheat seed varieties or use disease-free seeds for planting to mitigate the effects of the disease.
• Soak the seeds in water for 4-6 hours and then dry them under shade before sowing.
• Treat the seeds with fungicide at a rate of 2gm/kg to further prevent disease.
• Ensure that the soil surface is level for proper distribution of water and soil moisture.
• Prior to sowing, plow the soil surface with a chisel plow and uproot any weeds to prevent competition with the wheat.
• Use a rotavator to break up any soil clods and create a fine, even soil bed.
• Apply manure properly to the leveled field to increase the efficiency and productivity of the wheat crop.

Pre-harvest Management Practices

Planting Method:

• The drill sowing method is considered the optimal approach for wheat cultivation, as it facilitates uniform seed placement, appropriate seed depth, and improved crop yields.
• However, in many wheat-growing regions of Pakistan, the broadcast method is widely used due to its simplicity and lower cost. This method involves spreading wheat seeds over the soil surface and then using a light tillage method to incorporate the seeds into the soil.

Irrigation:

• The number of required irrigations for wheat may vary depending on the specific soil and region. Typically, wheat cultivation requires 4-7 irrigations throughout the growing season.
• Irrigation is particularly crucial 20-25 days after sowing, during the booting stage, and at the milking stage. These stages are critical for wheat growth and development and require sufficient water to ensure optimal yields.

Green Manuring:

• The addition of organic matter is a crucial factor in promoting optimal wheat growth and achieving high crop yields. Farmyard manure is an excellent source of organic matter and can be applied to the field at a rate of 8-10 tons per acre to improve soil quality.
• Adding farm yard manure to the soil can help to increase soil fertility, promote soil structure, and increase soil water-holding capacity. By improving the organic matter content of the soil, farmers can promote healthier crop growth, reduce the incidence of plant diseases, and achieve higher yields.

Fertilizer Usage:

• For average soil add 1-2 bags of DAP and 2-3 bags of urea before the sowing of wheat. 

Foliar Application:

    Mostly the soil of Pakistan is deficient in zinc. To tackle this problem zinc is applied at the interval of 15 days. 

Weeding: 

    Hoeing and Chemical applications are used to remove the weeds in the field. 

Disease-free seed:

    It is very important for the better production of wheat with the best quality grains using disease-free seeds.

Post Harvest care

Harvesting and threshing:

• For threshing use disease-free equipment for the proper and pure wheat seeds. Ask the thresher operator to clean their tools before entering the field.

Shattering:

• Avoid excessive shattering of wheat seeds in the field. Shattering can happen in the field through birds, tools, and also through dispersing wind.

Transportation: 

• It is the main reason in Pakistan for the loss of grains on a large scale. It is estimated that about 15.3% of losses occur due to transportation in Pakistan. But losses on an experimental basis in UAF are about 7.37%. 

Delayed Threshing in the field:

•  There is no delay in threshing if this happens then wind and rains cause severe losses. 

Reasons for threshing losses:

• Threshing tools should be properly cleaned before use to avoid contamination from previous harvests.
• It is important to have a skilled operator to handle the thresher to avoid any damage to the grain and ensure proper separation of wheat from the straw.
• Threshing should be done in the direction of wind velocity to prevent the spreading of wheat straws over a large area.

Losses during storage:

• Avoid using chemicals for long-term storage, as they may not be suitable for household use.
• Ensure that there is no entrance of air in the storage area to prevent mold and moisture buildup.
• Keep the storage area free from animals such as dogs, cats, rats, and other pests.
• Regularly inspect the storage area and the grain to check for any signs of insect or pathogen infestation.
• Use neem leaves to help prevent pathogen attacks in the storage area.
• Store wheat in an elevated area to prevent water damage and insect infestations.
• Maintain a moisture content level of 9-12% for proper storage.
• Use gunny bags, which are an effective option for wheat storage due to their breathable material and ability to prevent insect infestations.

Wheat diseases:

    There are some diseases and their control is given, these diseases included common bunt Tilletia caries, Kernal Bunt / Partial Bunt, Flag smut, Fusarium head blight, Fusarium wilt, etc.

To achieve better, pure, and healthier grains, it is crucial for farmers to adhere to the following instructions:

• For optimal crop growth, it is essential to cultivate the recommended varieties. 
• Weeds should be eliminated from the field to prevent competition for nutrients and resources. 
• To ensure consistency, it is recommended to grow the same variety in the same plot.
• Irrigation and fertilization should be applied on schedule to promote healthy growth and maximize yields. 
• If a pure variety of wheat is desired, it is important to use a cleaned thresher and its associated tools. 
• Additionally, the moisture content should be maintained below 10%.
• To further ensure the quality of the wheat, it is advisable to utilize seed graders to remove any contaminated wheat seeds. 
• Finally, to prevent pest infestations, fumigation can be carried out in the storage room.

References:

1

2

3

4

5